Theory of Systems

• This chapter introduces systems theory, fundamental concepts, and various types of systems.
• It covers defining systems, their components, objectives, environments, and communication methods.
• The chapter differentiates between natural and artificial systems, explaining their functions and purposes.
• It explores systems' relationships with natural science, design science, and computer science.
• The discussion shifts to computers as systems, covering their goals, parts, connections, and surroundings.
• A detailed look is provided into the Von Neumann computer architecture, including its components, workings, features, strengths, and weaknesses.
• Different computing systems are covered, like computers, software, networks, and the Internet, explaining their roles and purposes.
• A comprehension of systems, their classification, and relevance in natural and man-made contexts for future learning can be expected.

Theory of Systems

• Systems can explain both external and internal realities.
• An information system is an organized set of components performing a designated function.
• System components are related, and their collective functioning enhances the system's operation.
• Car example: Each part (engine, wheels, brakes) performs a unique task to make the car move.
• Computers, organisms, machines, or devices have components working together to achieve an outcome.

Systems Theory

• Deals with complex structures in living organisms, relating humans to society and science.
• Aids in interpreting the world with diverse perspectives, understanding system operation, integration, growth, and change.
• Systems exist at all levels, from nature to human designs, including physical objects like cars, processes like university admissions, or abstract objects like mathematical formulas.
• Understanding system operation helps improve their development across disciplines like computing, biology, engineering, and social science.

Basic Concepts of Systems

• A system is defined by its objectives, components, communication, and environment.
• Components communicate to achieve objectives in an environment.
• Systems range from simple (thermostat) to complex (human body, computer network).

Objective

• Every system has a purpose or goal to fulfill.
• Analyzing a system's operation requires understanding its aim.
• Insight is improved with efficiency and efficacy.
• A transport system efficiently transfers people and products securely between locations.
• A computer system processes data and provides useful information to users.

Types of System Objectives

• System objectives vary based on nature and purpose.
• Common objectives include information processing, supporting other systems, and achieving specific goals.
• Computer systems process user data to produce meaningful outputs.
• The human brain processes sensory information to perceive the environment.
• Cell phones run applications, while the sun provides energy to Earth.
• Thermostats maintain temperature, and car engines convert fuel to mechanical energy.

Components

• Building blocks of any system that play a specific role, and contribute to overall functionality.
• Understanding each component is essential to understanding the system.
• Identifying problems, improving performance, and refining system design is aided by this understanding.
• Smooth working ensures the system meets its objectives.

Environment

• Includes everything external affecting system operation.
• Understanding the environment influences system performance by providing inputs and receiving outputs.
• Intelligent systems adapt for continual functionality.
• System design and functionality depend on environment's properties.

Static vs. Dynamic Environment

• Static environment remains unchanged unless the system provides an output.
• Dynamic environment can change independently. System responds to environment changes over time.

Deterministic vs. Non-deterministic Environment

• Deterministic: A system is characterized by the impact of its output being fully known.
• Non-deterministic: A system is characterized by the impact of output having inherent uncertainty, randomness, or probability.

Communication

• Communication and interaction facilitates components’ work to achieve objectives in an organized manner.
• Example: CPU communicates with memory for data, and the brain sends signals to muscles for movement.

System's Interaction with the Environment

• Systems interact constantly with their environment through inputs and outputs.
• A weather monitoring system gathers data from sensors and provides weather status and forecasts.
• Computers interact with peripherals like printers and scanners, and biological systems interact with plants and animals forming a food chain.

Types of Systems

• Systems are broadly categorized into natural and artificial.
• Understanding the differences and similarities aids in applying system theory.
• Natural systems naturally exist and occur without human intervention.
• Artificial systems are created by humans for specific needs or purposes.

Natural Systems

• Exist in nature and operate independently of human involvement.
• Governed by natural laws and processes.
• Varied forms and sizes, from atoms and cells to forests, oceans, and cosmos.

Physical Systems

• Composed of physical components, governed by physics.
• Includes subatomic particles, atoms, planets, stars, galaxies, and cosmos.
• Physical systems emerge from the interactions of electrons, protons, and neutrons, like hydrogen gas (H).

Chemical Systems

• Involve substances, interactions, transformations, and reactions.
• Governed by laws of chemistry.
• Chemical systems emerge from physical systems when atoms and molecules interact like water (H₂O).

Biological Systems

• Consist of living organisms and their interactions.
• Governed by growth, reproduction, and metabolism and emerge from chemical systems when molecules interact to form living cells, tissues, organs, and organisms.

Psychological Systems

• Involve the mind and behavior, including thoughts, emotions, and mental processes.
• Governed by psychology principles and emerge from biological systems when the brain's processes influence experiences and environment.

Artificial Systems

• Created and developed by people to fulfill functions or address issues.
• Ranging in size, systems are designed to perform tasks, improve efficiency, and solve issues.
• Vital for reinforcing productivity, solving problems via Knowledge management, engineering achievement and social systems.

Knowledge Systems

• Designed to capture, process, store, retrieve, and manage information for effective decision-making, learning, and problem-solving.

Mathematics

• Mathematics focuses on problems connected to numbers, their amounts, forms, structures, and patterns.

Logic

• Logic is used for identifying and assessing rationale and a basis of all logical thinking processes and practice of critical analysis.

Databases

• Databases manage data, particularly for easy retrieval, management, and updating and includes the relational database management system like MySQL and others are NoSQL database management system like MongoDB.

Information Management Systems

• Used for capturing, archiving, organizing, and disseminating data.

Engineering Systems

• Devices developed by engineers that apply engineering concepts to perform tasks or solve technical challenges.

Civil Engineering Systems

• Focus on developments such as construction and maintenance.

Mechanical Engineering Systems

• Planning/Creating devices that utilize outside forces to do work such as a robotic arm in packaging.

Chemical Engineering Systems

• Converting raw materials into products through chemical processes.

Electrical Engineering Systems

• Involves the application and study of electricity, electronics, to develop electrical systems such as home automation with a smartphone app.

Software Engineering Systems

• Designing, developing, and maintaining software to perform tasks such as a library tool tracking books.

Social Systems

• Frameworks established handle social interactions, organizational governance, and communal endeavors.
• Aims include order, services, and social connections.

Academic Institutions

• Entities that provide educational services via administrative, teaching, and support staff.

Governments

• Organizations that wield authority and control which are democratic systems and authoritarian regimes.

Organizations

• Entities achieving objectives and are structured with roles and responsibilities which are corporations or non-profits.

System and Science

• Knowledge is our understanding of systems. Science is a systematic way to validate it.
• There are two types of science: natural and design science.
• Natural science studies systems to understand them. Design science creates systems to solve problems.

Natural Science

• Meant to uncover the objectivity and functionality of natural systems.
• Descriptive, the goal is to understand and describe natural occurrences and scientific method.

Design Science

• Designing/Creating artifacts to achieve goals, and prescribed to create artificial systems.

Computer Science

• Computer science is the study of how computers work, including what they can do and their limitations.
• Includes both design science and natural science.

Natural Science of Computer Science

• Focuses on finding the basic rules that control how computer systems work.
• The algorithm characteristics are what involves this

Study of Algorithms

• Analyze existing algorithms to understand their efficiency and limitations such as Quick Sort.

Design Science of Computer Science

• Improves computer tools and systems.

Development of New Software Tools

• Creates new tools or applications to solve problems and new programming languages

Improvement of Computer Systems

• Enhancing existing systems like creating a more efficient database management system.

Computer as a System

• A computer is a complex system designed to process data and perform tasks.

Objective

• The main objective is to perform computations, process data, and execute different tasks efficiently.

Components

• The system includes interface, processing and communication components.

Interface Components

• Include input devices such as the keyboard and mouse, which allow users to interact with the computer and the computer uses output devices to interact

Processing Components

• The processing components consist of the CPU, RAM and storage.

Communication Components

• Refers to the physical elements that provide communication for different components such as the motherboard

Environment

• The computer system environment includes any external devices that interact with it such as a stable power supply.

Interaction with the Environment

• The environment includes power supply, networks, and peripherals.

The Architecture of von Neumann Computers

• CPU, memory, input, and output mechanisms.
• Von Neumann model developed in the 1940s.

Von Neumann Architecture

• Memory: Stores data and instructions for CPU processing. (e.g. RAM).
• Central Processing Unit (CPU): Performs addition and subtraction along with the the Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU) and the Control Unit (CU).
• Input Devices: keyboard, mouse, and microphone. Entering text on the keyboard transmits data to the CPU for subsequent processing.
• Output Devices: monitor and printer. Upon completion of data processing, the CPU transmits the outcome to the monitor for visual display.
• A system bus is a communication mechanism that facilitates the movement of data between components, comprising of data bus, address bus, and control bus.

Working

• Von Neumann architecture includes retrieval, interpretation, execution along with storage.
• Includes 3 main processes: Fetching, decoding, execution , and storing.
• Fetching: CPU retrieves instructions from memory (PC, IR).
• Decoding: CU decodes the instruction
• Execution: ALU executes mathematical and logical operations.

Characteristics

• Stored Program Concept: Programs are stored in memory and can be changed by the computer. For example, when you update a software program, the new instructions replace the old ones in memory.
• Sequential Execution: Instructions are processed one after another in a sequence. For example, when your computer runs a program, it follows the steps one by one in the order they are written.

Advantages

• Simplified Design: By combining instructions and data into a single memory area, architecture is simplified.
• Flexibility: Programs can be easily changed by changing memory contents.

Disadvantages

• The Von Neumann bottleneck occurs when a single memory area limits the CPU's ability to retrieve instructions and data quickly.
• Security Risks: Having data and instructions stored in the same area poses a problem where one program can alter another's instructions in a manner that is security risk

Computing Systems

• Hardware refers to the tangible components of the system. These include the Central Processing Unit (CPU), Random Access Memory (RAM), storage devices, and input and output devices.
• Software refers to a collection of instructions that dictate the requirements and actions that hardware must do.
• Types include Computer, Software Systems, Computer Networks, and the Internet.
• A computer network connects multiple computers and devices, enabling the efficient exchange of resources and information.
• Resource sharing, communication, and data Management are all objectives of computer networks.
• Protocols, and network operating systems are included in network software

Types of Computer Networks

• Local Area Network (LAN): Connects computers in a specific area,
• Wide Area Network (WAN): connects computers across larger geographic regions, such as cities, nations, and even continents.

Internet as a System

• The internet is a network of smaller networks working together.
• The core protocols that govern data transmission over the Internet are included in Internet protocols.
• The Internet operates in a diverse and dynamic environment, the design, security, and performance is influenced by this.