Theories of Social Development

Theories provide concepts, propositions, assumptions, and beliefs that guide how people understand and interpret their world.
Each theory considers the historical, institutional, and structural context of a specific problem or phenomenon. There are no universal truths in social theories.
Knowledge continuously evolves as societies accumulate new information through observation, interactions, experimentation, and trial-and-error.
Knowledge is codified as social theory, ideology or religious dogma.
Knowledge is used as a tool to control and/or to liberate society and shape leaders' behavior. Examples include "civilizing missions" and "neo-liberal theory."
Theory conditions routine behavior without direct force. It influences what is considered necessary, desirable, possible, and acceptable.
The mind of the oppressed is a powerful weapon in the hands of the oppressor, as described by Biko.

Development is viewed from three perspectives:
- Economic: Focuses on indicators like gross national product (GDP), foreign investment in sectors like mining, industries, infrastructure, and banking, high technology levels, rising household income.
- Political: Considers the availability of democracy (free and fair elections, freedom of movement, speech, assembly, and worship), human rights (right to work, education, marriage, and an adequate standard of living), and low levels of corruption.
- Social: Evaluates aspects like the availability of social services (electricity, housing, food, education, health, infrastructure), life expectancy, mortality rates (especially infant and maternal mortality), and a multi-dimensional approach embracing political, social, and economic considerations

These theories arose after World War II, aiming to explain why some countries were more developed than others (e.g., Europe/North America vs. the "Third World").
Their main interest is in describing and explaining social transformations from traditional to modern societies, following Western Europe and North America's path. Walt Rostow’s stages of economic growth (1960) is an example theory.
Key assumptions:
- Modernization is a phased, linear process.
- Modernization necessitates capitalism.
- Traditional structures and values must yield to modernity.
- Critical inputs (institutions, technology, expertise, capital, markets) are necessary.
Examples include Rostow's Five Stages of Human Development and Nurkse's Vicious Circle of Poverty.

Rostow compares development to an airplane taking off.
Development progresses through five stages, each stage is crucial to moving to the next.
The initial stage is Traditional Society, characterized by
- Agriculture dominance, low productivity
- Low technology level
- High mortality (especially infants ages 0–5)
- High fertility
- Extended families & clan ties

Nurkse argues a poor society remains poor because it lacks the resources to help it move up, creating a cycle of poverty. There is a lack of technology, capital and investments/savings that are required to break the cycle. The external "big push" is needed to initially spark these changes.
Poor countries are underdeveloped due to a lack of capital (and saving) and technology.
There’s an absence of technological innovation to raise productivity, coupled with a lack of investment.

These theories, emerging after World War II, argue that the underdevelopment of some countries is a consequence of their relationship with developed countries.
Developed countries (the “core”) exploit developing countries (the “periphery”) through unequal trade relationships, investment, technology transfer, and often political and social dominance. This creates an unequal system where the "core" benefits disproportionately.
Key assumptions:
- Two sets of nation-states (metropolitan and peripheral), interacting unequally.
- Exploitative interactions, supporting core nations
- External forces negatively affect the periphery (MNCs, international markets, institutions).

The world is divided into three parts: core, semi-periphery, and periphery.
Core countries are industrialized, have highly integrated economies, high productivity, skilled labor, and are democratic.
Semi-peripheral countries are in between.
Periphery countries have vertically integrated economies with core countries, are typically politically undemocratic, and have predominantly peasant economies.
Core nations often exploit semi-periphery and periphery countries, and the relationship between them is exploitative through financial institutions.

These are developed by African leaders aiming for self-reliance and rejection of neocolonialism.
Key themes:
Nationalizing resources, promoting internal growth
Embracing regional cooperation and integration among African nations.
Importance of local resources.
Promotion of mass education for ideological and cultural emancipation

Neoliberal theories assert that state intervention in the economy hinders development.
Focuses on free markets, reducing state involvement
Free market participation promotes growth and efficiency
Global market integration promotes foreign investment and technology transfer
Liberal democracy is important.