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Questions and Answers
What might motivate introverts to avoid social situations?
What might motivate introverts to avoid social situations?
What is one characteristic of introverts due to their higher physiological arousal?
What is one characteristic of introverts due to their higher physiological arousal?
What issue complicates the measurement of physiological arousal in research on introversion?
What issue complicates the measurement of physiological arousal in research on introversion?
What do recent twin studies suggest about the origins of personality?
What do recent twin studies suggest about the origins of personality?
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What type of twins share 100% genetic overlap?
What type of twins share 100% genetic overlap?
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What is the primary influence of the unconscious on behavior?
What is the primary influence of the unconscious on behavior?
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According to Freud, why are conflicts among the id, ego, and superego common?
According to Freud, why are conflicts among the id, ego, and superego common?
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The greater personality resemblance observed in identical twins compared to fraternal twins is likely attributed to what factor?
The greater personality resemblance observed in identical twins compared to fraternal twins is likely attributed to what factor?
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What other traits are related to introversion according to theorists?
What other traits are related to introversion according to theorists?
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What type of impulses are considered to produce greater conflict according to Freud?
What type of impulses are considered to produce greater conflict according to Freud?
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What role does anxiety play in Freud's theory of personality?
What role does anxiety play in Freud's theory of personality?
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What is a likely outcome for people who condition more easily?
What is a likely outcome for people who condition more easily?
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Which of the following is a defense mechanism as described by Freud?
Which of the following is a defense mechanism as described by Freud?
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What does the defense mechanism of projection entail?
What does the defense mechanism of projection entail?
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What is an example of rationalisation according to Freud’s concepts?
What is an example of rationalisation according to Freud’s concepts?
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Which statement best reflects the role of the ego in Freud's framework?
Which statement best reflects the role of the ego in Freud's framework?
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What is repression in the context of psychological defense mechanisms?
What is repression in the context of psychological defense mechanisms?
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Which defense mechanism involves directing feelings of anger towards a substitute target?
Which defense mechanism involves directing feelings of anger towards a substitute target?
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What does fixation refer to in Freud's theory of psychosexual development?
What does fixation refer to in Freud's theory of psychosexual development?
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What role does the concept of identification play in defense mechanisms?
What role does the concept of identification play in defense mechanisms?
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What is the primary focus of Freud's psychosexual stages of development?
What is the primary focus of Freud's psychosexual stages of development?
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Which of the following traits is associated with openness in personality?
Which of the following traits is associated with openness in personality?
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What is the primary focus of psychodynamic theories?
What is the primary focus of psychodynamic theories?
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Which component of personality did Freud describe as operating on the pleasure principle?
Which component of personality did Freud describe as operating on the pleasure principle?
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What criticism was NOT directed towards Freud's psychoanalytic theory?
What criticism was NOT directed towards Freud's psychoanalytic theory?
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Which of the following best describes conscientiousness?
Which of the following best describes conscientiousness?
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Freud’s structure of personality includes which of the following components?
Freud’s structure of personality includes which of the following components?
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What does the id utilize to fulfill its urges?
What does the id utilize to fulfill its urges?
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What is the main difference between punishment and negative reinforcement?
What is the main difference between punishment and negative reinforcement?
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According to Skinner, how do response tendencies change over time?
According to Skinner, how do response tendencies change over time?
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Which statement best describes Skinner's view of human behavior?
Which statement best describes Skinner's view of human behavior?
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In Bandura's social learning theory, which element is emphasized that is often neglected in traditional behaviorism?
In Bandura's social learning theory, which element is emphasized that is often neglected in traditional behaviorism?
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Which of the following is an example of punishment, as defined by Skinner?
Which of the following is an example of punishment, as defined by Skinner?
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What does Rogers believe undermines a person's psychological well-being?
What does Rogers believe undermines a person's psychological well-being?
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What is the primary source of affection for children in early life according to Rogers?
What is the primary source of affection for children in early life according to Rogers?
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How do children typically respond when they perceive their parents' love as conditional?
How do children typically respond when they perceive their parents' love as conditional?
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What result does Rogers suggest occurs when individuals grow up with conditional affection?
What result does Rogers suggest occurs when individuals grow up with conditional affection?
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What does Rogers indicate is the principal cause of troublesome anxiety?
What does Rogers indicate is the principal cause of troublesome anxiety?
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What defensive behavior might an incongruent individual exhibit when faced with accusations of selfishness?
What defensive behavior might an incongruent individual exhibit when faced with accusations of selfishness?
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Study Notes
Theories of Personality
- Theories of personality aim to explain how people think, feel, and behave.
- Different perspectives exist, including psychodynamic, behavioural, humanistic, and biological.
Lesson Outline
- Nature of personality
- Psychodynamic perspectives
- Behavioral perspectives
- Humanistic perspectives
- Biological perspectives
The Nature of Personality: Defining Personality
- Defining personality involves consistent behaviour across situations
- It's about a person behaving in a consistent way in various situations
- Distinctiveness is also key since everyone has unique traits
The Nature of Personality
- Personality is a combination of behaviour that is consistent over time and across situations (consistency) and behaviour differences among people reacting to the same situation (distinctiveness).
- A definition of personality is an individual's unique pattern of consistent behavioural traits
Personality Traits
- Personality traits are durable dispositions to behave in a particular way
- Traits are often described with adjectives like honest, dependable, moody etc
- Some traits are basic, while others are more superficial
Personality Traits
- Key personality traits include:
- Extraversion: outgoing, sociable, cheerful, friendly, assertive
- Neuroticism: anxious, hostile, self-conscious, insecure, vulnerable
- Openness: curiosity, flexibility, vivid fantasy, imaginative, artistic, and unconventional
- Agreeableness: sympathetic, trusting, cooperative, modest, and straightforward.
- Conscientiousness: diligent, disciplined, well-organized, punctual and dependable
Psychodynamic Perspectives
- Psychodynamic theories focus on unconscious mental forces.
- Freud's psychoanalysis was an innovative treatment procedure involving lengthy, verbal interactions where he probed into patients' lives
Freud's Psychoanalytic Theory
- Freud's theory faced criticism due to:
- Focus on unconscious forces
- Emphasis on childhood experiences
- Focus on sexual urges
Freud's Structure of Personality
- Id: Primitive, instinctive component operating on the pleasure principle (immediate gratification)
- Ego: Decision-making component operating on the reality principle (mediating between the id and the social world)
- Superego: Moral component incorporating social standards
Freud's Structure of Personality (Id)
- The id is the primitive instinctive component of personality.
- It operates according to the “pleasure principle”
- This principle involves seeking immediate satisfaction of urges (e.g., hunger, thirst)
- The id engages in ‘primary process thinking’, which is primitive, illogical, irrational, and fantasy-oriented.
Freud's Structure of Personality (Ego)
- The ego operates according to the “reality principle”
- This means that it seeks to delay gratification of the id’s urges.
- This compromise involves considering social realities, rules, and norms to guide behaviour.
- The ego contains ‘secondary process thinking’, which is relatively rational, realistic, and oriented toward problem-solving
Freud's Structure of Personality (Superego)
- The superego is the moral component of personality.
- It represents internalized social standards about right and wrong, often acquired through the experiences during childhood.
- The superego continually evaluates the ego’s decisions and may induce feelings of guilt or pride.
Freud's Three Levels of Mind
- Conscious: Awareness of immediate surroundings
- Preconscious: Easily retrieved memories
- Unconscious: Repressed thoughts, feelings, memories
Freud's Conflict and Defense Mechanisms
- Anxiety arises from conflicts between the id, ego, and superego.
- Defense mechanisms are unconscious reactions that protect a person from painful emotions like anxiety and guilt.
- Common defense mechanisms include rationalisation, repression, projection, displacement, reaction formation, regression.
Freud's Conflict and Defense Mechanisms (Additional)
- Rationalization: Creating false but plausible excuses
- Repression: Pushing thoughts and feelings into the unconscious
- Projection: Attributing your own thoughts/feelings to someone else.
Freud's Conflict and Defense Mechanisms (additional)
- Displacement: Diverting emotions to a different target.
- Regression: Reverting to immature behaviours.
- Identification: Boosting self-esteem by identifying with someone else.
Freud's Theory of Development: Psychosexual Stages
- Freud argued that personality development occurs in stages.
- Stages are characterized by developmental challenges and fixations that could affect adult personality.
- Fixation occurs when the needs at a particular stage are either excessively gratified or excessively frustrated.
- These psychosexual stages include oral, anal, and phallic.
Behavioral Perspectives
- Behaviorism focuses on observable behavior.
- Behaviorists ignore internal mental processes.
- Behaviorism examines how our environment shapes our personality.
Classical Conditioning
- Classical conditioning involves learning through association.
- A neutral stimulus becomes associated with a stimulus triggering a response, and the neutral stimulus eventually triggers a similar response.
- Extinction occurs when the conditioned stimulus is presented alone without the unconditioned stimulus, leading to the gradual weakening of the learned response.
Skinner's Operant Conditioning
- Operant conditioning emphasizes the role of consequences in shaping behaviour
- Operant conditioning occurs when a response is strengthened or weakened based on its consequences (reinforcement or punishment).
- Reinforcement increases the likelihood of a specific behaviour, where punishment decreases the likelihood of that behaviour
Skinner's Operant Conditioning (positive reinforcement)
- Positive reinforcement occurs when a pleasant stimulus is presented after a behavior.
- This strengthens the behaviour, increasing its frequency.
Skinner's Operant Conditioning (negative reinforcement)
- Negative reinforcement occurs when an unpleasant stimulus is removed after a behavior.
- This also strengthens the behaviour, increasing its frequency.
Skinner's Operant Conditioning (punishment)
- Punishment weakens a behaviour, reducing its frequency.
- Punishment is when an unpleasant stimulus follows a response.
Punishment (Additional)
- Positive punishment is adding something unpleasant.
- Negative punishment involves removing something desirable.
Bandura and Social Learning Theory
- Bandura's social learning theory acknowledges cognition (mental processes) as well as environment in shaping personality.
- Social learning includes observation, imitation, and modeling.
Observational Learning
- Observational learning focuses on learning through observation of others, also referred to as 'models'
- Learning can occur indirectly–by observing what happens to others
Observational Learning (Additional)
- Attention is an important aspect of observational learning.
- If we do not pay attention to the model, we cannot learn from them.
Self-Efficacy
- Bandura views self-efficacy as a crucial element in personality.
- Self-efficacy is people's beliefs about their ability to perform behaviours that should lead to expected outcomes
- High self-efficacy relates to confidence in abilities, while low self-efficacy relates to doubts.
Evaluating Behavioural Perspectives
- Useful in understanding how environmental factors influence personality
- Strengths: based on research that is more rigorous than clinical evidence.
- Limitations: oversimplification of human behaviour
Disadvantages of the Behavioural Approach
- Dilution of the behavioural approach
- Over-reliance on animal research
Humanistic Perspectives
- Humanism emphasizes free will and personal growth.
- It contrasts with psychodynamic and behavioural views, arguing people are not helpless pawns but active agents capable of self-determination.
Carl Rogers' Person-Centred Theory
- Rogers emphasized the importance of the self-concept as a central aspect of personality.
- He believed that a positive self-concept fosters well-being
- The self-concept is made up of beliefs about one's own nature, unique qualities, and typical behaviour.
Incongruence/Congruence
- Incongruence is the difference between the person's self-concept and experiences.
- Congruence is when a person's self-concept is reasonably accurate of their experiences.
Maslow's Theory of Self-Actualisation
- Maslow proposed a hierarchical model of needs, with basic needs at the bottom and self-actualisation at the top.
- He believed that humans strive for self-actualisation, the realization of one's potential.
- Self-actualisation is the highest level of needs.
Hierarchy of Needs
- Maslow’s pyramid depicts a hierarchical arrangement of needs.
- Basic needs such as physiological, safety and belongingness must be met before higher level needs such as esteem and self-actualisation can be aroused.
Evaluating Humanistic Perspectives
- Strengths: Provides positive, optimistic view, focuses on personal growth
- Limitations: Difficult to test scientifically
Biological Perspectives
- Biological perspectives examine hereditary influences on personality.
- Twins, separated at birth, provide valuable data for investigating the importance of genetics in developing personality.
Eysenck's Theory
- Eysenck's theory suggests many human traits are derived from a handful of fundamental higher-order traits
- Personality traits are in part inherited and influenced by differences in a person’s temperament, and their physiological functioning
Evaluating Biological Perspectives
- Strengths: Evidence from research on twins and heredity supports its arguments
- Limitations: Lack of a comprehensive theory
Theoretical Diversity
- In psychology, there is a variety of theoretical perspectives to explain human behaviour
- Different theories focus on different aspects of behaviour
- Different theories often converge on a more complete understanding of human behaviour
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Description
Explore the various theories of personality, including psychodynamic, behavioral, humanistic, and biological perspectives. This quiz delves into how personality is defined, its nature, and the trait approach that describes individual differences. Understand the core concepts that shape our thoughts, feelings, and behaviors.
