Theories of Intelligence

Theories of Intelligence

• Alfred Binet formalized intelligence as mental operations, suggesting one set of abilities solves all problems.
• Charles Spearman proposed intelligence consists of a g-factor (mental operations, primary and common) and an s-factor (specific performance factors).
• Louis Thurstone defined seven primary abilities: verbal comprehension, numerical abilities, spatial relations, perceptual speed, word fluency, memory, and inductive reasoning.
• Howard Gardner's theory of multiple intelligences includes eight independent types: linguistic(poets, writers), logical-mathematical, spatial(pilots, sailors), musical, bodily-kinesthetic(athletes, dancers) interpersonal(psychologists, counselors) intrapersonal(philosophers, spiritual leaders), and naturalistic(farmers, tourists)

Triarchic Theory of Intelligence

• Robert Sternberg's theory includes componential (analytical intelligence), experiential (creative intelligence), and contextual (practical intelligence).

Measuring Intelligence

• Alfred Binet and Theodore Simon tried to measure intelligence with Mental Age (MA) and Chronological Age.
• William Stern created the Intelligence Quotient (IQ), calculated as (Mental Age / Chronological Age) x 100.
• The average IQ is 100, irrespective of age.
• David Wechsler published the Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale (WAIS) and later the Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children (WISC).

Types of Tests

• Individual tests include Bhatia's Battery.
• Group tests include MCQs and Raven's Progressive Matrices.
• Verbal tests are oral or written.
• Non-verbal tests use pictures and illustrations.
• Performance tests involve materials to perform tasks.
• Koh's Block Design Test is easy to administer and uses wooden blocks.
• Joshi's intelligence test focuses on the Indian population.

Cultural Bias in Testing

• Culture Fair tests developed in the USA and Europe are biased.
• These benefit urban, middle-class cultural groups and white subjects.
• Non-verbal and performance tests reduce cultural bias.
• Verbal tests are highly biased.
• Bhatia battery test measures the intelligence of the Indian population.

Emotional and Creative Intelligence

• Emotional intelligence (EQ), defined by Goleman, includes managing one's emotions, self-motivation, and recognizing others' emotions.
• A positive relationship exists between creativity and intelligence, with creativity needing intelligence to comprehend, retain, and retrieve.

Intellectual Ability & Personality Traits

• Intellectual deficiency is observed by AAMD from ages 0-18.
• Intellectually gifted children show a longer attention span, good recognition memory, and sensitivity.
• Type A personalities are impatient and achievement-oriented. Type B personalities are easy going and relaxed.
• Intelligence is the ability to acquire and apply knowledge and skills using logic, reasoning, problem-solving, and planning.

Diversity

• Diversity can be visible (physical), invisible (religion, political belief), or both (sexual orientation).
• Humans attach stereotypes to physical similarities.
• India has six ethnic groups: Negrito, Proto-Australoid, Mongoloids, Mediterranean or Dravidian, Western Brachycephals, and Nordic.
• People differ in OCEAN (Openness, Conscientiousness, Extroversion, Agreeableness, Neuroticism).

Personality Theories

• "Persona," meaning mask in Latin, represents an individual's unique, consistent, and dynamic physical and psychological characteristics.
• Social traits are the most visible diversity facts.
• Stereotypes leads to prejudice, which is a preconceived opinion unbased in fact.
• Greek physician Hippocrates suggested four personality types based on fluid dominance: sanguine, irritable, calm, and melancholic.
• Kretschmer linked physique and character.
• Sheldon’s body based theory: endomorphs (soft fat and round), ectomorphs(tall, thin) and mesomorphs (well built).
• Trait Theory: Trait theory stabilizes personality
• Allport and Cattell theories.
• Internal process of thinking is caused cardinal behaviors. Behavioral tendencies consistent in various situations.

Personality Development and Structure

• Personality develops from genetic traits, maturation, imitation, and learning.
• The self-concept is shaped by core concepts; challenges to these are threatening.
• The self-concept can be positive or negative, and does not always align with reality.
• Self-esteem is the overall evaluation of oneself, and self-efficacy is the expectation to perform according to capability.
• Mastery of tasks and praise increase self-efficacy.
• Freud's theory involves the ID (pleasure principle), EGO (reality principle), and SUPEREGO (moral aspects).

Freud's Stages of Development

• Oral stage: centered on the mouth (0-18 months).
• Anal stage: focuses on toilet training.
• Phallic stage: awareness of genitalia.
• Latency stage: ages 7-11, libido channeled into constructive activities.
• Genital stage: maturation of sexuality.
• Defense mechanisms divert energy to protect the ego from the id.
• Neo-Freudians include Carl Jung, Alfred Adler, and Erik Erikson.

Collective Consciousness & Social Relationships

• Collective consciousness is inherited and includes archetypes.
• Adler proposed all people have inferiority feelings and strive for superiority.
• Eric Fromm focused on social relationships.
• Rogers believed in subjective experience and personal development is decided in childhood.
• Maslow believed needs must be fulfilled in order: physiological, safety, social connection, esteem, and self-actualization.

Learning Theories of Personality

• Skinner proposed behavior is a response to stimuli (S-R connections) and includes operant and conditioned responses.
• Albert Bandura theorized behavior can be learned by observation and modeling.

Personality Assessment

• Self-report inventories are answered by individuals and rate behavior, attitude, and feelings on a scale.
• Standardized inventories include the Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory (MMPI) to identify psychological disorders.
• Cattell's 16 PF Questionnaire is for counseling children, adolescents, and adults.
• Projective techniques use vague stimuli to reveal unconscious thoughts, exemplified by word association tests.
• Thematic Appreciation Test involves cards with human figures.

Group Processes

• A group is three or more people interacting and interdependent.
• Features include social norms, common needs, goals, and defined social roles.
• Functions include fulfilling belonging needs, security, identity, knowledge, and goals.

Group Formation & Development

• Groups form due to proximity, similarity, or common goals.
• Group development stages: forming, storming, norming, performing, and adjourning.

Group Composition and Influence

• Status: Members of the group have positions and rank
• Roles: they perform different functions
• Norms: standard and accepted rules govern their behavior.
• Cohesiveness unites members with a feeling of oneness.
• Types include primary (family), secondary (political party), formal, and informal groups.
• In groups and Out groups
• Social facilitation the presence of others improver the performance of the doers while social inhibition the presence of spectators bring down the performance.
• Social loafing individuals feel less responsible leading to lower performance.

Groupthink and Polarization

• Groupthink: Unity and relation, failure to assess risky actions, a desire to accept and fit in to the group
• The shift from safe individual decision to risky group decision is known as risky shift.

Leadership

• Leadership differs according to the organisation, situation.
• An relationship oriented leader is effective for social welfare, while task oriented for private sector.

Leadership Styles

• Transformational: trust and inspires.
• Transactional: plans, organizes, and rewards.
• Autocratic: dictates decisions with absolute power.
• Democratic: involves group participation.

Attitude

• A state of mind regarding some topic or attitude object.
• ABC components: cognitive, affective, and behavioral.
• Attitudes form through classical conditioning, operant conditioning, and modeling.
• They also form through social comparison, cultural norms, and information exposure.

Changing Attitudes

• Attitude changes through persuasion
• Source: credibility, attractiveness, and expertise matters.
• Message: crucial, should involve repetition and it should be logical, face to face is more personal
• Target: People in a good mood are likely to change their attitude.

Stereotypes, Prejudice, and Discrimination

• Stereotype is a belief or opinion by virtue of group membership.
• Prejudice is translated into discrimination, a behavioral component.
• Stereotypes arise from learning, association, and observation.
• In-group bias involves a positive attitude toward one's group and a negative attitude toward out-groups.

Reducing Stereotypes and Intergroup Conflict

• Develop inclusive and attitude.
• Increase intergroup contacts.
• Reasons: competition for valued material resources and competition for social rewards.

Coping with Stress

• Defined by Hans Seyle as the nonspecific response of the body to any demand for change.
• "Stressor"
• Daily hassles stress
• Physiological reactions and Cog reaction
• People with positive attitude recover from stress easier

Seyle Stress

• He developed three stages of stress: alarm, resistance, and exhaustion.
• During alarm, adrenaline and cortisol.
• Autonomic Nervous System includes the sympathetic (fight or flight) and parasympathetic divisions.

Managing and Mental Health

• Problem focused coping
• Emotion focused
• Cognitive response
• Techniques of stress management
• Recognize and treat if help needed and maintain a positive mindset.
• WHO says: Early childhood interventions. Nullify all distractions and mental activities

Lifestyle

• Stressed people do not follow healthy lifestyle
• Positive thoughts. Walking jogging will do. Yoga a meditation when Under stress.
• Mental health is essential to entity and to be in equilibrium.

Traits

• The traits include adjustability, personal worth, problem-solving, security, responsibility, love, realism, maturity, purpose, and balance.

Mental Health

• Poor mental health exhibits confused thinking, mood swings, and suicidal thoughts.
• Factors leading to poor mental health include genetic makeup, CNS damage, or adverse psychosocial influence.
• Perpetuating factors: biological, physiological, psychosocial, and social.
• Biochemical factors: disturbance in neurotransmitters.
• Brain changes, or injury is major cause of poor mental health.
• Women are highest risk during early adulthood

Mental Disorders

• Disorders alter thinking, mood, and behavior, including prolonged depression.
• Phobias have irrational fears.
• The history of particular disorder is prepared targeting adjustment
• After treatment terminate as needed.

Holistic development for health

• It means development for humans.
• Love affection, interest is important here
• Satisfaction and Happiness can be achieved

Satisfaction

• It is multidimensional regarding psychological health and satisfaction.
• Striving can solve and include enjoyment
• Foundation is depth and relationship.
• Factors include positive attitude and manage to have feelings and manage to have impulses
• In order to live a healthy life we must live with gratitude and live for helping others.

Resiliance

• cultural change and cultural differences
• build connection and deal with change
• maintain positive attitude
• and intervene as needed for life choices.