أسئلة علي المحاضرة الثالثة في الـ Psychology & Behavioral Science

• Learning is defined as a relatively permanent change in an organism's behavior or abilities due to experience
• Learning helps in mastering new skills as well as academic subjects
• Learning enables changes to thinking, emotions, and behavior

Theories & Methods of Learning

• Behavioral theories focus on the objectively observable aspects of learning
• Behavioral theories fall under two broad categories of S-R theory (stimulus-response)

S-R Theory with Reinforcement

• Trial and Error theory by Thorndike
• Operant Conditioning by Skinner

S-R Theory Without Reinforcement

• Classical Conditioning by Pavlov
• Cognitive theories look beyond behavior to explain brain-based learning
• Self-regulated learning & Media psychology is a newer addition due to the inclusion of technology in learning experiences

Classical Conditioning

• This is associative learning where a previously neutral stimulus (CS) is paired with an unconditioned stimulus (UCS) to elicit a conditioned response (CR) that is identical or similar to the unconditioned response (UCR)
• Ivan Pavlov discovered that dogs associate the sounds of food preparation with the food itself
• This method was scientifically studied in Russia around the 20th century
• Pavlov received the Nobel Prize for his work on saliva's role in digestion

Classical Conditioning Terminology

• Classical conditioning is described as a previously neutral stimulus that causes a reflex

Unconditioned Stimulus (UCS)

• Anything that evokes a response without prior learning or conditioning
• For instance, food causes a dog to salivate
• The food is an unconditioned stimulus because it causes automatic reflex salivation without the dog needing to learn it

Unconditioned Reflex/Response (UCR)

• Any response that happens automatically without learning
• Salivation in response to seeing food occurs automatically within dogs

Conditioned Stimulus (CS)

• Created by learning, and therefore does not produce a response without prior conditioning
• Dogs wouldn't salivate to a bell without learning to associate it with food

Conditioned Reflex/Response (CR)

• Response learnt by associating it with an unconditioned stimulus.
• Salivation in response to hearing the bell without any food

Classical Conditioning & Psychology

• In 1920, John B. Watson and Rosalie Rayner reported experiment probably the most cited example of classical conditioning in psychology
• Watson sought to test that fears are acquired through classical conditioning by teaching fear to Little Albert, an 11-month-old
• Albert was not initially afraid of a white laboratory rat
• An iron bar struck behind Albert's head as he played with the rat
• Albert cried due to loud noise
• Albert developed a strong fear response to the rat after the association of the rat and loud noise after seven associations
• Fear of the rat was learned through classical conditioning

Classical Conditioning & Physical Health

• Plays a role in physical health
• The body produces specialized blood cells that attack viruses when exposed to health threats
• The body's immune system responses are classically conditioned

Robert Ader's Experiment (1981)

• A drug (UCS) was administered to rats to suppress the activation of their immune system cells (UCR)
• Rats drank saccharin sweetened water (CS) at the same time as the drug
• The rats showed a suppression in immune cell production (CR) from just drinking the sweetened water after pairings of the drug and the sweetened water

Phenomena Occurring in Classical Conditioning

• In acquisition, the conditioned response (e.g., salivation in response to the lunch bell) is learned

Extinction

• Conditioned responses disappear after when the conditioned stimulus is no longer presented

Aversive Conditioning

• An unwanted behavior (e.g., setting fires) is paired with a painful or aversive stimulus (e.g., an electric shock)
• The fir-setting ceases as an association is created between fire setting and pain
• Disulfiram to treat alcoholism is another example of aversive conditioning

Spontaneous Recovery

• The appearance of a previously extinguished, but weak response is observed

Stimulus Generalization

• Responding in the same way to similar stimuli
• An example would be a young child being scared all fuzzy animals as opposed to just fuzzy cats

Stimulus Discrimination

• Organisms can learn to discriminate between various stimuli

Shaping

• Involves rewarding closer approximations of the wanted behavior
• Correct behavior achieved
• Praising a child learning to write when she makes a letter, even if not formed perfectly is a good example
• Shaping is small steps towards desired behavior

Modeling

• Observational learning
• An individual behaves similarly to someone they admires

Learned Helplessness

• Animal receives painful electric shocks from where it cannot escape
• Via classical conditioning, the animal learns the association between an aversive stimulus and the inability to escape
• The animal makes no attempt to escape when shocked or when faced with any new aversive stimulus; becomes hopeless and apathetic
• Learned helplessness in animals is a model for depression in humans
• It is characterized by hopelessness and apathy
• Antidepressant treatment increases escape attempts in animal models

Trial-and-Error Theory of Learning (Thorndike)

• Edward Thorndike described operant conditioning

• Learning takes place with the formation of an association between stimulus and response

• Learning takes place with person's trials that give satisfaction to the individual

• Thorndike used animals to explain learning

• Hungry cat was placed in a puzzle box with a door opened by latch

• Fish = placed outside the box

• Cat made random movements within the box - biting, scratching

• Cat manipulated the latch accidentally and reached the food over a series of trials

• The cat took less time, committed less errors as it soon opened the latch right away

Operant Conditioning (Skinner)

• Method of learning that occurs with rewards and punishments for behavior

• An association is made between a behavior and a consequence

• Skinner used "operant" to refer to active behavior upon the environment and generates consequences

• Skinner's term: Reinforcement

• Reinforced Behavior = repeated/strengthened

• Non-reinforced Behavior = dies out/extinguished

• Skinner Box = Skinner's experiment, animals

• Animal + box + lever to releases food

• Rat pressed the lever more and more to release the food.

• Lever-pressing = operant behavior (action)

• Released food = reinforcer (causes lever pressing behavior to increase)

• Food can also be described as a conditioned stimulus and causes an effect to occur

Responses Following Behavior (three types of responses)

• Identified by Skinner
• Responses DO/DO NOT increase or decrease repetitions following environment
• Increases (follows behavior) the event
• Two kinds of reinforcers

Positive Reinforcers

• Presents Favorable outcomes
• Strengthened Behavior
• With the addition of direct reward and praise

Negative Reinforcers

• Removal of unfavorable events or outcomes
• Response Strengthened by removal of something seen as unpleasant
• Removal from detention list (e.g.)
• Behavior Increases in Cases of Reinforcement
• Adverse outcome presentation causes behavior decrease

Punishment

• Weakens behavior
• Two kinds of reinforcements

Positive Punishment

• Unfavorable event's Presentation weaks out the response
• i.e yell at student

Negative Punishment

• Favorable event or outcome's removal, following what happens
• Prevents student from going on trip (i.e.)

Primary Reinforcers

• Innate reinforcing
• Aren't acquired via learning
• Ex: food, warmth, and activity

Secondary Reinforcers

• Play roles in operant conditioning
• Learned through classical conditioning
• Classical conditioning involves stimuli association
• Neutral Stimulus is turned in secondary reinforcer via repetitively paired with primary reinforcer
• Dog training is a fine example

Escape Reinforcement

• Operant conditioning, reinforced behavior
• Causes negative even to end

Avoidance Conditioning

• Operant conditioning = reinforced behavior = prevents negative happening

Schedules of Positive Reinforcement

• Continuous reinforcement, is given to desired behavior every time + animal
• Intermittent reinforcement, is given the response with animal's desired
• Types of intermittent reinforcement include ratio and interval

Ratio Reinforcement

• Animal gives desired response post pre-determined proportion

Fixed Ratio Reinforcement

• Produced desired behavior every 5th time - reinforcement ( regular ratio)

Variable Reinforcement

• Produced desired response with pre-determined proportion and not fixed (Random)

Fixed Internal Reinforcement

• Regular Schedule

Variable Internal Reinforcement

• Random

Skinner Findings (Two types of findings)

• Continuous Reinforcement learning increases the rate of learning with early training
• Low resistant / Susceptible Extinction
• Slower Learning rapid with Intermittent Reinforcement (Continuous Reinforcement is higher
• Response sustained / extended; Extinction slows

Guidelines for Effective Punishment

• Behavior being punished should be clearly communicated accompanied by its reason
• Rules+consequences = Enforce continuously (To rid confusion)
• Punishment should be fair
• Misbehavior proportionate
• Conduct punishment during misbehavior for consequence associating
• Physical: NO physical punishment
• causes trauma
• Reinforcement = positive
• behavior
• Dignity/respect = maintain while managing punishment damages relationship

Dangers with Punishment

• Physical harm
• trauma
• Self-Esteem Decreases
• Aggression: increased
• Mistrust and resentment
• Communication declines
• Negative Model role (children and aggression)

Cognitive Theory of Learning

• Learning: social + cognitive process
• Qualifying cognitive process: reasons making interpretations giving meaning drawing attention perception + analysis
• Understanding with knowledge involved within cognitive learning
• Learning = Non-Associative

Non-Associative Learning

• Response = One stimuli (repetition, exposure)

a) Habituation

• Behavioral Probability diminishes as stimulus has many reps
• Animal usually response stimulus
• Animals reduces the subsequent response, rewarding harmless

b) Sensitization

• Stimuli administrations repeated via Response amplification
• A person rubs constantly Everyday Stimuli will repeated tonic cause nerves

As time goes on, feelings turns painful and stimulus triggers

• Sensory = Progressive amplification - Peripheral Nerve

Associative Learning

• Process = Associations between "two stimuli - behavior - stimuli"
• Forms = operant and classical = "Explained before'

Imprinting

• Phase's learning Sensitive's stage Consequences within behavior with Independent

Observational Learning

• Imitation = characteristics = behaviors

• Learned behavior

• Model Behavior = Learn from people other than individual

• Simultaneous Copy = 3

• Environmental Outcomes

• Actions

• Goals

Observation Neural

• Neural Component's
• Model role and future predictions
• Frontal + parietal + observations action

Play

• Describes - no end- behavior in itself
• Improves performance - future in situations
• Play as Learning
• Central role - development as learning
• Children through play

Extinction: Learning How to Quit

• Unlearn - adapt within changing
• Stimulus removed -- extinction commences

Extinction - Types

• Conditioning = classical
• Conditioning = Operant

Classical Conditioning - Extinction - 1

• With The Unconditioned stimulus, conditioned pairings produces will exhibit responses

(1Partial Reinforcement Effect

• Type, schedule greatly affect speed conditioned extinction

• Extinguish with responses when continuously reinforced w/" variable ratio /variable interval"

(2Response Prevention

• Avoidance : learning with responses
• The negative, event the occurrence
• Speed up individual's negative is not see the occurring

Disinhibition:

• Spontaneous with Recovery during operating and conditioning's classics

• Occular/ time with strong response

• Condition decreased due to stimuli' chair being in UCs

• Dentists, chairs, long periods - CS

Extinction

• Occurs stimuli recovered and stimulus is repeatedly present quickly

Disihibition

• Increase during stimuli / events

Behavioral Therapies

• The base comes from theories derived to behavioral

• Relieving maladaptive patterns as behavior when symptoms are

• Re-adjusts to negative thinking's styles that relate

• Compared - Psychoanalysis

• Therapies are NOT related

• behavioral therapies are effective

• Strategies of therapy that are Specific

• Desensitization Systematics

• Economy Taken Bio-Feedback

• conditioning the aversive

• Cognitive / behavioral The Flooding

• Management for Fears in phobias

• 4 step- Desensitization- systematic by method:

• Hierarchy Fear-arousing scenes +Relaxation + Therapists taught + Fear Arousing scenes

Conditioning Aversive

• Manage w/ : smoking + paraphilias
• painful/Classical with stimuli

Pleasurable paired conditioning

• Behavioral - engaging (with the provocative) is unpleasant
• Habiuation by fear - reducing (Implosion and Flooding)
• Reduce severely or with autism - increasing behavior

Economies Token - Operantly

• Conditioning reinforcing is desirable
• Shaving combing rewards gaining