The Yale Approach to Persuasion

Persuasion Defined

• Persuasion occurs when a message alters one's attitudes or behaviours
• Persuasion can be negative, such as in radicalisation and advertising
• Health messaging and RSA campaigns are examples of positive persuasion
• The success of persuasive efforts is related to underlying characteristics
• Susceptibility to certain message types depends on individual traits

Yale Approach to Persuasion

• Considers source, message, and audience as factors that influence persuasion

Source: Attractiveness

• Attractive sources are more persuasive
• Celebrities in ads exemplify this

Source: Likeability and Similarity

• Individuals similar to us are seen as more likeable
• People are more easily persuaded by those they like
• "In-group" members can persuade more effectively, as messages are better remembered
• Mackie et al. (1992) showed participants are more persuaded by a speaker from their own university compared to an outsider
• Familiarity matters in persuasion, being strong within groups but weak between them
• Mimicking others' gestures make people more persuasive per van Baaren et al. (2003)

Perceived Expertise and Trustworthiness

• "Expert sources" are more persuasive than non-experts
• Dentists advertising toothpaste is an example of this
• Belief is more likely when individuals are qualified to comment on a product/issue
• Distrust arises for those seen as having an ulterior motive
• Persuasion is less likely when manipulated
• According to Miller et al. (1976), fast talkers are more trustworthy
• Tormala & Clarkson (2007) found recent exposure to non-credible messages increases susceptibility to more trustworthy sources

Perceived Credibility

• Source credibility affects the likelihood of persuasion
• Repetition to a persuader enhances perceived credibility and chance of successful persuasion
• Messages and brands are made more true and credible through repetition

Sleeper Effect

• A persuasive message might not work at first due to concerns about source credibility
• Persuasion happens later as the source is forgotten
• Persuasion becomes less about the source
• First discovered by Hovland and Weiss, 1951
• Initially, student conviction was higher with credible source
• After 4 weeks, credible source advantage disappears
• If reminded of the source after 4 weeks, the sleeper effect disappears
• In other words the advantage for the more credible source disapears

Message Factors

• The Information included: "What" is included in a persuasive attempt
• How it's presented: "How" it its presented affects persuasiveness.
• The message length, consistency with the audience’s opinion, repetition, fear arousal, factual and emotional content
• All the above factor into the effectiveness of the message

Message Length

• The link between variables is complex, and bigger is not always better
• Long messages are more effective if "strong," but less effective if "weak"
• A "strong" message includes relevant, objective facts
• A “weak” message gives peripheral information
• Short, strong messages are more effective than long, weak ones
• Shorter messages has key data that isn't lost easily

Message Consistency

• Consistency between persuasive message and the target's original attitude predicts persuasiveness
• Very different messages to the audience will be ignored
• Liberman and Chaiken (1992) showed coffee drinkers reject messages linking caffeine to health risks more than non-coffee drinkers
• Rejecting incongruent data intensifies attitudes and behaviours
• Extreme views result from only listening to agreeable people
• Attitudes strengthen when similar individuals reinforce congruent information

Message Consistency: Lord, Ross and Lepper (1979)

• The study split participants into those for and against the death penalty
• Participants were asked to read two fictional studies, one "found" that the death penalty decreases homicides, other showed no difference
• Those against grew more opposed, those for grew more supportive Ratings of "convincingness" were also influenced by prior attitudes
• Interestingly, both sides of an argument do not make people more impartial

Message Repetition

• Frequent ads and brand jingles are seen often for a reason
• Repeating messages can make them more effective by helping to consolidate memory
• Advertisements are most effective if seen two to three times a week per Tellis, 1987
• Simple repetition of information can make it seem more true per Arkes et al. (1991)

Repetition caveat

• The link between variables is not that simple
• The more familiar someone is with the product, the more effective repetition can be (Campbell & Keller, 2003)
• A certain level of familiarity is important if repeat advertising is going to work
• Some evidence suggests ads "wear off" when repeated too much
• It can also be more effective if carried out with some level of variety

Message: Fear Arousal

• Designed to arouse fear
• Extensively used in health messaging

Appropriate Fear Level

• Aronson (1997) stated that fear is sometimes ineffective, resulting in state of denial
• Tangible solutions within the messaging can prevent denial
• An "inverted-U" curve best visualises level
• Too little fear means people are not motivated to process non-threatening messages
• Too much fear can cause anxiety and denial
• A moderate amount of fear can lead to attitudinal change

Scarcity

• Emphasising or purely stating the rareness of an item in attempt to make is more desirable
• Worchel, Lee, & Adewole (1975), gave everyone chocolate chip cookies and asked them to rate it
• Group one was given two cookies, group two was given ten cookies
• Cookies were rated more desirable because they were a scare resource

Factual vs. Evaluative Appeals in Messaging

• Objective facts are used for persuasion through facts
• Persuasion is achieved through highlighting subjective opinions and evaluations

Success Factual vs. Evaluative Appeals

• Both can be effective, but it is based upon the target
• Analytical and well-educated people will be more persuaded by reason
• Audiences are more influenced when persuaded by a likeable person delivering a message
• Effectiveness of a factual vs emotional appeal is based upon how the target came to have their opinion
• If someone's attitude is based upon emotion, they react to it differently than facts

Influence of Delivery

• Delivery of messaging matters

Two-sided Messages

• Particularly effective if people are aware of opposing arguments
• Present arguments for and against to show this
• Preemptive counterarguments in advertising and court create credibility

Message Framing

• Framing influences reception
• "Reverse discrimination" is more attractive than "equal opportunities"
• Companies with "equal opportunities" advertising is more effective than "quota place" ads
• The message is more effective when framed by the positive as opposed to the negative

Primacy and Recency Effects

• Items that come first are better remembered and likely to be more persuasive
• People listening will agree with points made earlier
• Name of the top list candidates more well known
• First impressions count
• Items that came last are more likely to be persuasive
• Especially if there is a chance to forget the first items presented
• Luchins (1957) found people remembered first presented information, unless there was a delay, then they remembered best most recent information

Channel's Influence on Persuasion

• Modes such as video text and posters can have an impact on effect
• The power of visual advertising is clear in today's times
• It has been found that people process images easier than text
• According to (Chaiken and Eagly, 1976) text is easier to take in when there is more complexity
• It is easier to make an impact of change with visual advertising

Targeting

• Persuasiveness has a connection to whom the attempt is aimed at
• Individual differences such as age, gender, and personality affect how influential they are

Gender

• Women are more susceptible to persuasion
• Women agreed more on face to face contact, and men have no difference
• Is it easily persuaded or the fact that gender roles are more dependent on other elements that may reduce strength
• (Carli, 1990) Speakers that seemed more tentative led to more persuasion in gender

Age

• Young adults are more likely to give in to suggestions/persuasion
• They are impressionable/Have less tough mindset
• Visser and Krosnick (1998) argue that persuasion is easier done in early adulthood
• Core value is tougher nut to crack

Personality and Individual Differences

• High NEC means the message is more likely to persuade based on its strength.
• Low NEC means people are less likely to be persuaded
• The range of opinions could possibly not be changed

Mood

• One's current mood affects persuasive efforts to get through
• Sad mood promotes periphery processing/Encouraged to
• Good mood can enhance elaboration as a whole

Central vs Systematic; Peripheral vs Heuristic

• Both are effective based on setting
• It depends on what people are, and how you can work with abilities
• Persuasion via the peripheral is ineffective as the central/systematic
• This leads the lasting results in the end

Interpersonal Persuasive Techniques

• Persuade others by...

Ingratiation and Reciprocity

• Make others like you
• If too obvious, it can be detrimental
• Power tools- No one wants to be leech
• Be kind and make others obligate do the same

Door In the Face technique

• Start big, work your way down
• Persuaders make acceptance by target's refusal in first ask
• Cialdini et. Al., (1975) stated this technique capitalises on first and second request The small request seems logical since its now more reasonable!

That's-Not-All Technique

• "Added Extras"
• Salesman does this tactic
• Better deals show better success
• Pollock et al. States people have to see it instinctively
• Pollack 1998

Foot-in-the-Door Technique - Freedman and Fraser

• One key review founded that you can help with eventually persuading and doing to very large requests, like donating organs
• Won't work always work
• Small and Large request needs to has some bond.
• Incremental build ups over time is the common

Lowball Tactic *Cialdini

• You are stuck with the burden
• The target follows because they went through all stages of action
• Cheap flights but hidden fees
• 56% was told test started at 7 am and 95% showed!! With no mention of price. With start up time mention only 24% showed up

Resistance

• Reactance- The freedom is threatened and makes you not want to be there
• Boomerang effect
• Prior Knowledge- Know what they want to get out of you..
• This is about people using their cognitive process to persuade and it not working

Counterarguing

• People resist by pushing back
• Stop to think: What could I say to prove myself?
• How can I give this person "self defending"
• How can I stay true to what I believe?
• Actively take part in against persuade effort

-Attitude inoculation - - - Linden

• Presentations leads to weak efforts
• Like a shot at the doctors
• People can grow and want to show their defense when having that prior knowledge
• https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jbgK8Ei-Rp0
• Inoculation you need to let it be known!

Avoidance

• Selective avoid
• Filter info.
• I don't want to do X Y and Z

Attitude + media+ biased with assimilation

• The biased side will not always align always with what is to be true