The Yale Approach to Persuasion

Persuasion Defined

• Persuasion occurs when a message alters a person's attitudes or behaviors.
• Radicalization and advertising exemplify negative applications of persuasion.
• Health messaging and RSA campaigns are positive examples of persuasion.
• Not all persuasive attempts succeed, and individual characteristics influence susceptibility to specific messaging styles.

Yale Approach to Successful Persuasion

• Considers persuasion to be influenced by the source, the message, and the target audience.

Source: Attractiveness, Likeability & Similarity

• More attractive sources are more persuasive. For example, celebrities are used in advertising.
• People like and are more easily persuaded by those similar to them.
• Individuals are more readily persuaded by "in-group" members because their messages are more memorable.
• Familiarity enhances persuasion, especially within groups. However, it is weaker between groups.
• Showing similar behaviors, such as gestures, increases persuasiveness.

Source: Expertise & Trustworthiness

• "Expert sources" have more persuasive power. For example, dentists advertise toothpaste.
• People are more inclined to believe qualified individuals commenting on a product or issue.
• Trustworthiness is essential; people distrust those perceived as having ulterior motives.
• Fast talkers are often viewed as more trustworthy.
• Recently encountering non-credible messages increases susceptibility to credible sources.

Source: Credibility

• Exposure to a source or persuader repeatedly can enhance perceived credibility and the likelihood of persuasion.
• Repetition of a message can make it seem truer and boost brand recognition, thereby enhancing credibility.

Sleeper Effect

• A message, initially unpersuasive due to concerns about the source's credibility, becomes more persuasive over time as the source is forgotten.
• Over time, recall of the message delivery source fades, shifting persuasion to message features.
• Hovland and Weiss (1951) first discovered the sleeper effect.
• If participants are reminded of the source after four weeks, the sleeper effect vanishes; otherwise, those exposed to a credible source and those exposed to a non-credible source find information as convincing.

Message Length

• The length of a message can impact its persuasiveness, but it is complex.
• "Strong" messages containing objective facts are more effective. However, "weak" messages providing peripheral information are less impactful.
• Shorter, concise messages with essential details outperform longer messages with lost details.

Message Consistency

• The consistency of a message with the target's original attitude greatly affects persuasiveness.
• A message perceived as too distant from the audience's initial attitude risks being disregarded.
• Coffee drinkers are more likely to reject messages linking caffeine to health risks (Liberman & Chaiken, 1992).
• People's attitudes and behaviors become more extreme when rejecting information that differs from their original opinions,
• If exposed to contradictory information but still interacting with like-minded individuals and congruent information, original attitudes may strengthen.
• Lord, Ross, and Lepper (1979) researched message consistency.
• Viewing both sides of an argument may not always lead to impartiality.

Message: Repetition

• Repetition is used in advertising to make messages more effective.
• To solidify memory, repetition is valuable.
• Advertisements work best when people see them two or three times a week.
• The repetition of simple information makes it seem more valid.

Message: Limits of Repetition

• The link between repetition and credibility is not always simple.
• Repetition is effective when people are already familiar with and have a positive attitude toward what is being advertised.
• Advertising needs some familiarity to work.
• Repeated exposure to advertising, can cause it to "wear off."
• Repetition with some variety is more effective

Fear Arousal

• Persuasive attempts are designed to evoke fear, mostly in health messaging.
• Arousal of fear in recipients is commonly used in fear campaigns in health.

Fear: The Right Amount

• It is ineffective to use fear as a persuasive technique, because it leads to denial when the problem is unsolvable, according to Aronson (1997).
• Denial can be avoided by offering a tangible solution.
• For example, resources to help quit smoking are communicated alongside fear appeals.
• Moderate fear is ideal for attitudinal change, according to the "Inverted-U" curve.
• Lack of fear creates no motivation.
• Too much fear causes people to be anxious and deny reality.

Message: Scarcity Technique

• Scarcity persuasion relies on emphasizing an item's rare nature to increase its appeal.
• Worchel, Lee, and Adewole (1975) conducted the study on scarcity technique.
• Chocolate chip cookies were provided to study participants, who were to rate the treats for tastiness.
• There was a two- or ten-cookie jar for each participant.
• Scarce resources were the cookies from the two-cookie jar.
• The scarcity of the cookies led people to find them more desirable.

Appeals: Factual vs. Emotional

• Factual advertising uses objective facts to persuade consumers.
• Evaluative advertising depends on subjective opinions and evaluations.

Appeals: Which is Best?

• Effectiveness depends on your audience.
• Rational appeals persuade analytical and educated people (Cacioppo et al., 1983).
• Disinterested audiences are affected by the presenter (Chaiken, 1980).
• Persuasion relies on how the target formed opinions/attitudes.
• Factual appeals suit attitudes born of facts, while emotional appeals suit attitudes born of emotion.

Message Method

• How messages get sent influences persuasiveness.
• Two-sided communications presents for and against sides of an argument. Especially effective if people know there are other arguments
• Pre-emptively providing a counterargument in persuasion improves persuasiveness. For example, when defending, acknowledge the information the prosecution will give.
• "Stealing thunder" is presenting conflicting information before it hurts.

Message Framing

• How a message is framed influences meaning.
• "Reverse discrimination" sounds better than "equal opportunities."
• Effective to advertise "equal opportunities" rather than quotas impacting particular groups.
• It is also more effective to frame the message in terms of gain.
• Stating "smoother, healthier skin in 4 weeks!" is more effective than "look less old and tired in 4 weeks!"

Primacy and Recency Effects

• Primacy Effect means that ideas presented first are more likely to be remembered and therefore persuasive.
• Agree more if heard first (Miller & Campbell, 1959).
• Candidates at the top of a ballet sheet get more selections (Moore, 2004).
• Primacy matters; first impressions make the different.
• Recency Effect means that items presented last are more persuasive.
• Remember the last item if time passes.
• Luchins (1957) demonstrated this originally.
• Primacy helps if presenting one point after the next.
• However, remember the most recent information best when adding a delay.

Communication Channel

• How information is presented affects persuasion
• Visual advertising is powerful. For example, TV ads, videos, images.
• Images are memorable in how the brain works.
• Persuasion comes from written forms for complex content (Chaiken, Eagly,1976).
• Visual advertising promotes attitude change.
• When the material is challenging, writing works.

Target Audience

• The persuasiveness depends on the audience.
• Age and gender may be different and must be considered.
• Individual differences effect messaging.

Target Gender

• Studies suggest women are more easily swayed than men.
• Social roles may make the difference.
• Women prefer face-to-face over email, but it makes no difference for men.
• Studies find that it may be a negative trait to be more easily persuaded.
• Eaton (2009) studied gender's role in persuasion.
• Gender role awareness leads to smaller changes.
• The context affects persuasion.

Target Age

• Young people are easily impacted by strong messages.
• This age group's impressions are more easily defined and impressionable because they lack strong opinions.
• In persuasion, Visser and Krosnick (1998) debate whether the pattern is different.
• Younger people are receptive to strong messaging over others.
• Older people are less easily persuaded.
• The researchers share their thought that some ideals may be resistant to change.

Personality and Individual Differences

• Need For Cognition: Thinker's require fulfilment from thinking.
• Persuadability can come from the need for cognition.
• When persuasion targets those with high NFC, rely on messaging strenght.
• Low force in messaging means a weaker message for high scorers, which means a need to rate information.
• Need cognitive closure: Individuals desire answers and are resistant to ambiguity.
• High scores on the NCCF mean close-mindedness may resist influence.

Target Mood

• Mood affects the reception of strong messaging.
• Positive thinking leads to persuasion, so try to produce a good energy at the moment of sharing messaging.
• To connect the strong messaging and results, be happy and receptive.
• During the mood, there will be affect on rational thought.
• Sadness leads to accurate conclusions, and a clearer analysis on messaging and a result.
• Janis et al. (1965) reported on messaging and receiving snacks.
• In 1990, Bless et al., added to Janis' point that strong attitudes need strength and should not need to be as week.

Part 2: Models How Persuasion Works

• Persuasion has psychological origins
• There are social psychological persuasion theories
• Petty and Cacioppo share the Elaboration Likelihood Model in 1986.
• Chaiken adds to the conversation in 1980, with the Heuristic-Systematic Model.
• Both models indicate two-routes to persuasion.

What is ELM?

• Its variations rely on receptiveness
• Elaboration about the issues is vital.

ELM: Two-Route Framework

• People are persuaded in one of the two ways
• It depends the features/cues we listen to.
• Features that can be shared message-quality and evidence.
• Receptiveness rests on the target
• All cues need efforts
• Receptiveness relies on cues.
• Individuals persuade the routes. One happens when someone is persuaded by core cues.

What is the Central Route

• Processing happens where having ability and inspiration are key
• It's important to attend to a precise message
• Core tips influence the route.

ELM: Other Routes

• People pay to attention to top messaging (quality and what the message said vs. peripheral)
• Superficiality influences receptiveness.
• Slogans also play a large part.

The Alternate Route

• Processing a message by paying attention to the tips that the message shows you.
• Evaluating helps reach conclusions
• It comes during a low point.

Factors Determining Processing Route

• The ability to focus means a better understanding of messaging
• The central cues matter.
• Cognitive is vital, and peripheral cues.
• When people lack focus, they are more inclined to pay attention to the outside effects.
• Study by Petty et al. in 1976, researched increase in cost.
• The non-distracted were open to cost increases.
• Distraction helps cognitive help for a message, according to et al. in the study

Processing Route: Ability

• Petty's researched showed that having support means openness.
• It makes messages clear.

Influencing Focus

• When interest wanes in content, inspiration doesn't lead to results.
• Maheswaren and Chaiken's study in 1991 shows it matters more when inspiration is low.
• Processing depends on cognition as well.
• Those who are persuasive and the content are what it boils down to, says this view.

Route Mood

• The tone during a persuasive effort can impact how a message is sent out.
• Sad tones can encourage receiving all, suggests Boehner, Chaiken, and Hunyadi in 1994.
• Inspiration and messaging being delivered matter for affect too.
• Credibility and perceived relevance and affects matter too.
• The points sway persuasion and the effect on thoughts and energy.

Core Vs Context

• Cues are influenced differently. A major influence can be tone and ability.
• Messaging can be effective. Persuasion using the route can be just as strong. Be careful when providing that.

In-Person Tips

• How can others get support for goals?

Reciprocity

• Building rapport means greater chance.
• It can backfires of the build-up is obvious.
• It hinges on doing a kindness that helps make a change.
• People wish to be a "kindness."
• There will come negative messaging with this kind of effort. In helping ensure, those who are will provide the return.

Using Door Technique

• Use an unrealistic persuasive technque before making a shift.
• To be effective, concession makes persuasion easier.
• Someone who feels responsible is on your side.
• Cialdini et al. argues its about balance.
• The technique can make a real impact.

Is There A "That's-not-all Technique?"

• "Added extras" can result better persuasion.
• An example is TV Sales
• Better compliance occurs. However, Pollock et al. in 1998 debates these techniques.

Getting A Foot In The Door

• This persuasion point relies on kindness first
• It's making a effort possible.
• Freedman and Fraser studied this point.
• Only 17% put signs in parks and 76% worked in windows with support.
• Messaging on organ donations can get support says one review.
• Does not always work of the requests are too small and lose their meaning.
• Increasing these acts is the fix or building messaging stronger.

What is "Low-Ball?"

• Changing an interaction and presenting new and hidden fees.
• Ryanair flights add those hidden costs, but are cheaper.
• Cialdini et al. in 1978 discussed those topics.
• Half of those studying had to give it their all, while only 24% of regular participants worked with organizers.

There Is No Support. Why?

• Can messaging get rejected?

What is Reactance?

• A negative message shifts personal views
• A rejection to what seems to be is harmful.
• It builds tension through messaging.
• A target can show anger and rejection with this communication, and a shift or opposition are not uncommon.
• Don't assume this rejection or this kind of sale will work with this effort too.
• A boomerang shows that that will not lead to what is needed. It goes against the hope.

Is Forewarning Important?

• Messaging from that before gets rejected
• Knowing others means security
• Persuasion starts to act earlier.
• There can get shared different things in those kinds of events.
• Finding different counterpoints is always. A way to support the view is best. It can lead to problems too.

Counter-Arguing

• People reject persuasion.
• Persuasion doesn't effective is when a lot of negative comments go around.
• The comments will go against messaging.
• Study by Eagly, Kulesa, Brannon et al. in 2000 supports.
• Messaging that is kind can bring that about, and it can help with self-defence from the persuasion.

What is a inoculation?

• Inconsistent comments are presented. This can guide to messages for support. messaging.
• A vaccine can result.

When Should You avoid Something?

• Selective avoidance: People filter out data that's irregular with prior views to withstand persuasion
• Ignoring information is irregular.
• People go to messaging what supports their thoughts.

A Resistance

• Viewing mixed-signal data can build your views and turn them stronger.
• Viewing unreliable thoughts as skewed can reduce support.
• Distrust can arise on messages as media and biases can be viewed as real and untrustworthy thoughts.