The Uniqueness of Human Language

• Human language is unique, setting it apart from animal communication

Language as a Human Universal

• Language is exclusive to humans, using structured grammar, syntax, and creative expression
• Animals communicate through sounds, gestures, or signals
• An example is Dog's barking which communicates fear or aggression
• Dogs cant form complex sentences or discuss past and future events like humans can
• All human societies, no matter where they are, have language
• Language is inherent, not a cultural invention
• Even isolated tribes like the Pirahã people in the Amazon possess fully developed languages
• Human language differs fundamentally from animal communication by facilitating abstract thinking, recursion, and generativity
• Chimpanzees taught sign language, such as Nim Chimpsky, could only repeat signs and could not form original sentences
• Humans can develop new languages when necessary
• Deaf children in Nicaragua developed Nicaraguan Sign Language (NSL) in the 1970s without formal teaching, suggesting that the brain is wired for language

Human Vocal Tract and Language

• The human vocal tract is designed for producing speech while serving other biological functions
• Only humans can articulate the full range of speech sounds that animals cannot
• Parrots can mimic human speech, but they do not understand its grammar or meaning
• The human vocal tract allows speech production and vital functions like breathing and swallowing
• The larynx is positioned lower in the throat compared to other primates, enabling speech and increasing the risk of choking

Human Brain and Language

• Language is deeply connected to brain structures, with specific areas controlling speech production and comprehension
• Certain areas in the cerebral cortex are responsible for language processing
• Broca's area (frontal lobe) controls speech production
• Patients with Broca's aphasia can understand speech but struggle to form grammatically correct sentences
• The brain has two hemispheres, with language functions localized to one side, usually the left
• Split-brain patients demonstrate that the left hemisphere processes speech, while the right hemisphere handles tone, emotion, and figurative meaning

Brain Development and Language Development

• Language acquisition is closely tied to brain maturation
• Language acquisition follows a predictable sequence, similar to motor and cognitive development
• Babies first babble, then say single words, and eventually form full sentences

Regular Onset of Speech

• Speech emerges at expected ages regardless of culture or environment
• Deaf babies babble using their hands when exposed to sign language
• Lenneberg identified universal language properties in 1967
• Speech is not suppressible, where if exposed to language, a child will acquire it naturally
• Even if a child is not formally taught language, they will pick it up from their surroundings
• Language cannot be taught to other species since non-human animals cannot fully learn human language

Examples of Language Development

• Attempts to teach chimpanzees human language have failed because they lack the neural structures needed for syntax and grammar
• Language follows universal principles since all languages share basic grammatical structures
• Every language contains nouns, verbs, and sentence structures, no matter how different they appear

Critical Period Hypothesis (CPH)

• Suggests there is an optimal time window for language learning, after which it becomes significantly harder
• The critical period is a biologically determined phase where exposure to language has the most impact on acquisition
• Young children effortlessly learn languages, while adults struggle with pronunciation and fluency
• Lenneberg suggested that the critical period extends until puberty, after which language acquisition becomes difficult
• Children who suffer brain injuries before puberty can recover language functions, whereas adults with similar injuries often struggle with speech recovery
• Newport found that younger learners are better at acquiring languages than adults
• Immigrants who move to a new country before age 7 often achieve native-like proficiency, while those who move after puberty usually retain an accent and grammatical errors

Overview of Behaviourist Theory of Second Language Acquisition (SLA)

• Language learning is a habit-formation process based on stimulus-response-reinforcement
• Learners acquire a second language (L2) through imitation, repetition, reinforcement, and conditioning
• Focus is on observable behaviors rather than cognitive processes

Key Figures in Behaviourist Theory

• B.F. Skinner (1957) proposed operant conditioning, which is learning shaped by rewards and punishments
• John Watson, an early behaviorist, believed learning is based on external behavior, not internal thoughts

Main Principles of Behaviorist Theory in SLA

• Learners copy sounds, words, and sentence structures from their environment
• Repetition helps form automatic habits in language use
• Positive reinforcement (praise, rewards) encourages correct responses
• Negative reinforcement (corrections, no reward) discourages mistakes

Language as Learned Behavior

• The more learners use correct forms, the more automatic they become
• A learner keeps practicing irregular verbs until they remember them effortlessly

Applications in SLA

• The Audio-Lingual Method (ALM) which is based on structured repetition, drills, and habit formation
• The method avoids grammar explanations, focuses on practice through speech patterns
• ALM origins from WW2 from rapid language training of military personnel
• ALM is based on B.F. Skinner's behaviorist theory and inspired by structural linguistics

Key Principles of ALM

• Language learning is habit formation through frequent drills to help learners internalize sentence structures
• Focus is on listening and speaking first, then reading and writing
• Memorization of sentence patterns
• Grammar taught indirectly by teaching correct sentence patterns

Reinforcement and Corrections in ALM

• Positive reinforcement strengthens usage, negative reinforcement discourages mistakes

Techniques & Activities Used in ALM

• Repetition drills where the teacher says a sentence and students repeat it
• Substitution drills where students replace one word in a sentence with another
• Transformation drills where students change sentence structures
• Chain drills to practice dialogue by taking turns speaking
• Minimal pairs practice which focuses on pronunciation differences between similar sounds
• Backward build-up for sentences broken into parts beginning with the last word

Strengths of ALM

• Its good for developing pronunciation and fluency
• It reinforces correct usage through repetition
• Great for oral communication skills
• Useful for languages with strict structure which are Japanese, Arabic, and Spanish

Criticism of ALM

• Its repetitive and can be boring
• It lacks meaningful communication
• It fails to explain language rules explicitly
• Its does not encourage independent thinking

Modern Use of ALM

• Still used today but in combination with other approaches
• Useful for pronunciation training, basic sentence patterns, and structured learning
• Common in language learning apps like Duolingo and Rosetta Stone that use repetition & drills

Fails to Explain Creative Language Use

• Learners produce original sentences, not just copy what they hear

Ignores Innate Language Ability

• Noam Chomsky's Universal Grammar theory argues an innate ability for language learning

Overlooks Internal Cognitive Processes

• It doesn't account for thinking, problem-solving, and mental strategies in learning

Conclusion on Behaviourist Theory

• It views language learning as a habit-forming process based on imitation, repetition, reinforcement, and conditioning
• Its principlesinfluence audio-lingual methods, memorization, and structured practice in language learning

Introduction to Language Acquisition

• Children acquire language skills incredibly fast
• All children progress through similar stages of language development
• Discussions spark about whether language is primarily learned through experience or if humans have an innate ability to learn language

The Puzzle of Language Learning

• Languages contain intricate grammatical rules and vast vocabularies, yet children acquire them effortlessly
• Children often learn without direct teaching
• Children can form complete sentences within a few years

Universal Grammar (UG) Hypothesis

• All humans are born with an inherent ability to learn language and a mental framework containing basic grammatical structures
• Noam Chomsky proposed that language learning isn't solely dependent on exposure
• Chomsky argued that the brain has a "language faculty" that allows children to acquire language effortlessly
• Chomksy created the "deep structure" and "surface structure"

Evidence Supporting Universal Grammar

• Children across different cultures and languages go through similar linguistic stages: babbling, one-word stage, two-word stage, and full sentence construction
• English and Japanese speaking children both begin with simple words before creating complex grammatical structures
• Children apply general grammatical rules to irregular forms, showing they unconsciously recognize patterns
• Children often produce grammatically correct sentences even when they have never heard them before
• Studies show that children exposed to language early develop fluency effortlessly, whereas adults struggle with new languages

Critical Period Hypothesis (CPH)

• Suggests that there is a specific window during early childhood when language acquisition occurs most naturally and efficiently
• Brain plasticity decreases, making it harder to acquire native-like skills after a certain period
• Genie who was isolated until 13 struggled with grammar which indicated she missed the critical period

Alternative Theories to Universal Grammar

• Usage-based approaches emphasize learning through interaction and exposure rather than innate grammar structures
• Connectionist models suggest that the brain forms language patterns through repeated exposure and experience rather than pre-existing grammatical structures
• Social interactionist theory highlights the role of social interaction in language learning

Implications for Second Language Acquisition (SLA)

• If UG exists, adults learning a second language might rely on remnants of their innate grammar, though it becomes less accessible with age
• Younger learners typically achieve better pronunciation and fluency due to brain plasticity
• Children in immersive environments acquire second languages more naturally where as adults benefit more from structured institution

Conclusion on Language Acquisition and Universal Grammar

• Linguists discuss the extent to which language acquisition is driven by innate mechanisms versus environmental exposure
• Understanding Universal Grammar provides insight into cognitive processes behind language learning and teaching methodologies
• Studies on language acquisition, neurology, and bilingualism can help improve learning and processing languages

Introduction to Jean Piaget

• Piaget was a Swiss psychologist known for his work in child development
• His focus was on how children acquire knowledge and how their thinking processes evolve
• Studied how children think differently from adults
• He proposed that children construct their understanding of the world rather than passively receiving information
• His model was a stage-based model of cognitive development

Core Concepts of Piaget's Theory

• Schema is a blueprint that helps individuals interpret and process information
• It evolves and becomes more complex with age and experience
• Assimilation is the process of fitting new experiences into existing schemas
• Accommodation is the modification of existing schemas to incorporate new information
• Equilibration is the balance between assimilation and accommodation

Piaget's Stages of Cognitive Development

• Piaget proposed four universal and sequential stages
• The Sensorimotor Stage from birth to ~2 years involves infants learning through sensory experiences and motor activities
• They begin to understand cause and effect relationships
• They develop object permanence, which is understanding that objects continue to exist even when they are not visible
• The stage involves Primary Circular Reactions (1-4 months) involving body actions
• Followed by Secondary Circular Reactions (4-8 months) involving actions and objects
• And Tertiary Circular Reactions (12-18 months) involving experiments

Preoperational Stage

• The Preoperational Stage, about ~2 to 7 years, involves development of symbolic thinking like pretend play
• Egocentrism which is difficulty in seeing things from another person's perspective
• Centration occurs, which is focusing on only one aspect of a situation while ignoring others
• Children use objects to represent other things (e.g., a stick as a sword), engaging in pretend play
• Child dont understand that physical properties stay the same
• Believing that inanimate objects have thoughts and feelings, this is animism

Concrete Operational Stage

• This stage from ~7 to 11 years olds, involves logical thinking about concrete, tangible objects and events
• Ability to understand that volume stays the same
• The ability to mentally reverse actions, this is known as reversibility
• The ability to consider multiple aspects of a situation at once, this is decentration
• Arranging objects in an order based on size, shape, or another characteristic, also known as seriation
• Grouping objects based on shared properties, known as classification
• Understanding relationships between elements, this is known as transitive inference

Formal Operational Stage

• 12 years and up
• Development of abstract and hypothetical thinking
• Ability to think about moral, philosophical, and scientific concepts
• Use of deductive reasoning which is drawing logical conclusions from general principles
• Thinking about things that are not physically present, this is abstract thought
• Ability to form and test hypotheses systematically, this is hypothetical-deductive Reasoning
• Thinking about one's own thinking, also known as metacognition

Educational Implications of Piaget's Theory

• Children learn best through hands-on experiences and exploration
• Lessons should match a child's cognitive stage to be effective
• Encourages interaction with peers to enhance understanding and problem-solving skills through collaborative learning
• Use of concrete materials is especially for younger children

Criticisms of Piaget's Theory

• Research suggests some children achieve milestones earlier than Piaget proposed
• Cognitive development may be more continuous rather than occurring in rigid stages
• Lev Vygotsky emphasized emphasized the influences from cultural and social aspects

Legacy and Influence of Piaget's Theory

• Piaget's theory laid the groundwork for future studies on how children think and learn
• His ideas shape modern educational strategies, emphasizing learning through exploration rather than rote memorization

Factors Influencing Language Acquisition

• Language Acquisition happens subconsciously and typically during early childhood without formal teaching
• Language learning is the conscious gaining of knowledge about a language through formal education and explicit teaching of grammatical rules

Key Theories of Language Acquisition

• Behaviorist Theory's proponents are Skinner etc
• This theory involves imitation, reinforcement, and habit formation
• This theory doesnt explain new sentences and overemphasize behavior
• Nativist Theory's proponent is Nom Chomsky with it's key principle of being innately ability
• No proof of LAD theory
• Theory of Interactionism, led by Vygotsky who said language and interaction are important

Core Principles for Interactionism

• Language development is based on interaction and communication
• The gap in learning is called ZPD
• Assistance from people makes it easier for children to learn quicker

Biological Factors for Communication

• Critical time for window of oppurtunity
• Good brain development

Environmental Factors for Communication

• Exposure to language
• Good engagement with caregivers

Cognitive Factors for Communication

• Good memory
• Problem solving skills

Implications for Language Teaching

• Drill
• Positive feedback

Summary of Schools of Thought in Language Acquisition

• Language is through habit imitation etc
• Cognitive focuses on the innate part of language
• Constructivism occurs through socialisation which includes discussion, collaboration etc

Generative Linguistics

• A focus on understanding is the most important thing

Constructivism

• Learning happens through communication