191 Questions
What was a limiting factor of early models of how we see?
They didn't consider the neural implementation
What was a major breakthrough in understanding the brain's role in visual processing?
The ability to observe brain function in the 1980s
What is the primary function of the dorsal stream?
Perception of spatial location
What is the primary function of the ventral stream?
Perception of form
What is the highest level of analysis in Marr's tri-level hypothesis?
Computational level
What question is addressed at the computational level in Marr's tri-level hypothesis?
What output is the system trying to get?
What is the primary goal of Marr's theory of visual processing?
To recognize objects and make sense of visual data
What is the main purpose of the first stage of Marr's theory?
To identify edges and contours in an image
What is the main difference between the 2.5-D sketch and the 3-D sketch in Marr's theory?
The 2.5-D sketch is focused on the viewer, while the 3-D sketch is focused on the object
What is the purpose of the line of symmetry in Marr's theory?
To split an object into two identical halves
What is the benefit of Marr's theory in recognizing objects?
It helps recognize objects from different angles and under different conditions
What is the main contribution of Marr's theory to the field of computer vision?
Creating a comprehensive model of human visual processing
What is the proposed mechanism for 'intuition' in blindsight patients?
A loop through the limbic system from the superior colliculus
What is the main distinction between analog and propositional codes?
The manner in which the information is represented
What is the significance of the mental rotation experiments?
They suggest that mental information is encoded differently than digital computers
What was the finding of the experiments by Roger Shepard and Jacqueline Metzler?
That cognitive information processing involves forms of representation that differ from digital computers
What is the characteristic of digitally encoded information processing?
The time it takes to process information depends on the quantity of information
What is unique about the way blindsight patients process visual information?
They use a secondary visual pathway that bypasses the visual cortex
What was the purpose of the experiment by Stephen Kosslyn?
To study the neural correlates of cognitive styles
What is the main debate surrounding mental imagery?
Whether mental imagery is encoded in an analog or propositional code
What is the characteristic of analog codes?
They are pictorial and represent information visually
What is the significance of the finding that some people are visualizers and others are verbalizers?
It demonstrates the neural correlates of different cognitive styles
What is the primary reason for the variation in the length of time it takes to answer questions based on distance from the original point of focus?
The size of the mental image affects the speed of judgment
What is the effect of visual imagery on visual perception, according to the research?
Visual imagery interferes with visual perception
What percentage of the same brain regions are activated during visual imagery and visual perception, according to neuroimaging research?
70-90%
What is the characteristic of people with prosopagnosia, according to the research?
They cannot create a mental image of a face
What is the primary difference between the analog and propositional codes, according to the research?
The type of representation
What is the similarity between the human visual system and neural networks, according to the research?
Both are organized in a hierarchical and retinotopic manner
What is the main difference between the organization of Area V1 and Area V2 in the visual cortex?
Area V1 is organized in a way that nearby parts of what we see are processed by nearby parts of V1
What is the primary function of the superior colliculus in the visual processing pathway?
To send information to the lateral geniculate nucleus (LGN)
What is the term for the idea that points on objects at different distances from the viewer will land on slightly different spots on the two retinas?
Retinal disparity
What is the main difference between the ventral (“what”) and dorsal (“where”) pathways in the visual processing?
The ventral pathway processes information related to object recognition, while the dorsal pathway processes information related to object location
What is the name of the theory that suggests that the retina has three types of color receptors, each especially sensitive to one of three colors?
Trichromatic Theory
What is the term for the phenomenon where some neurons are turned “on” by red but turned “off” by green, resulting in color afterimages?
Opponent-Process Theory
What is the function of the lateral geniculate nucleus (LGN) in the visual processing pathway?
To send information to Area V1
What is the name of the area in the visual cortex that is specialized for face recognition?
Fusiform face area
What is the percentage of Americans who are red-green colorblind?
8%
What is the primary function of the striate cortex in the visual processing pathway?
To connect to Area V1
What is the primary function of sensory memory?
To store visual and auditory information temporarily
What is the characteristic of Eidetic imagery?
It's the ability to remember images in great detail for a long time
What is the difference between Iconic memory and Echoic memory?
Iconic memory is for visual and Echoic memory is for auditory
Why is photographic memory not particularly helpful?
Because it doesn't improve memory organization skills
What percentage of schoolchildren were found to have Eidetic imagery?
About 5%
Why do memory experts not usually have a photographic memory?
Because their skill is in organizing information in their memory, not in storing it as pictures
What is the primary characteristic of Alzheimer's disease?
It is a neurocognitive disorder characterized by deterioration of memory, reasoning, and language abilities
What is the primary cause of Korsakoff's amnesia?
Thiamine deficiency
What is the approximate capacity of short-term/working memory?
7 +/- 2 items
What is the primary risk factor for developing neurocognitive disorders?
Hearing loss
What is the primary function of the hippocampus in memory formation?
Temporarily holding to-be-remembered information
What is the term for the process by which learning occurs in the brain?
Long-term potentiation
What is the effect of anticholinergics on the brain?
They reduce brain volume and lower levels of glucose metabolism
What is the main difference between explicit and implicit memory?
Conscious recall
What is the characteristic of amyloid plaques in Alzheimer's disease?
They contain a core of misfolded b-amyloid protein
What is the purpose of the frontal lobes in memory formation?
Recalling information and holding it in working memory
What is the association between tooth and gum disease and Alzheimer's disease?
Tooth and gum disease increases the risk of Alzheimer's disease
What is the term for the phenomenon where brain damage affects two behaviors very differently?
Dissociation
What is the time frame for short-term/working memory?
5-30 seconds
What is the characteristic of explicit/declarative memory?
Involves conscious recall
What is the primary function of the hippocampus in storing explicit memories?
Temporarily holding to-be-remembered information
What is the primary function of the hippocampus?
Formation of explicit memories
What is the term for the increase in the excitability of a neuron to a particular synaptic input caused by repeated high-frequency activity?
Long-term potentiation
What is the characteristic of individuals with full temporal lobe amnesia?
They have normal IQs and cannot form new explicit memories
Which structure is involved in the formation of implicit memories for skills?
Cerebellum
What is the term for the neurons involved in spatial navigation?
Place cells
What is the effect of damage to the hippocampus on Clive Wearing's memory?
He cannot remember anything that happened more than a few minutes previously
What is the correlation between the volume of the posterior hippocampus and the experience of London taxi drivers?
The volume of the posterior hippocampus increases with the experience of London taxi drivers
What is the primary factor that is positively correlated with experiencing déjà vu?
Socioeconomic level
According to the dual processing explanation, what could cause the brain to interpret sensory data as two separate experiences?
A slight alteration in transmission speed in one pathway
What is a common effect of sleep deprivation on cognitive functions?
Impaired judgment
What is the term for a phenomenon where people are oftentimes unaware of their impaired cognitive functions due to sleep deprivation?
Unrecognized cognitive impairment
According to the attentional explanation, what could cause a strong feeling of familiarity during déjà vu?
A combination of a fully processed perceptual experience and a minimally processed impression
What is an example of implicit familiarity without explicit recollection, as explained by the memory explanation?
Seeing a lamp in your friend's apartment that is similar to one that used to be in your aunt's house
What is the impact of sleep deprivation on the prefrontal cortex?
Impairs functioning
What percentage of ability to make new memories is lost when the brain doesn't get sleep?
40%
What is the result of a shutdown of the medial prefrontal cortex?
Increased anxiety
What is the impact of sleep deprivation on the immune system?
It depresses the immune system
What is the result of sacrificing sleep time to study?
Worsened academic performance
What is the relationship between sleep and glucose metabolism in adolescents?
Sleep impairs glucose metabolism
What is the primary mechanism by which the treatment of traumatic memories is thought to disrupt reconsolidation?
Through the use of Propranolol, a memory-blocking drug
What is the impact of sleep deprivation on athletic ability?
It improves athletic ability
What is a common characteristic of individuals with savant syndrome?
They have a severe intellectual disability
What is the primary reason why people who stay physically active and are non-obese have a lower risk of developing disease?
Because they have a lower risk of Alzheimer's disease
What is the result of treating insomnia with CBT-I?
It is more effective than sleep meds
What is the consequence of working 80 hours per week as a medical intern?
Impaired performance
What is the primary cause of storage decay in memory?
Interference from new memories formed during the retention interval
What is the primary difference between schema-consistent material and repisodic memory?
Schema-consistent material is generalized information, while repisodic memory is a blend of details
What is the risk of not getting sufficient sleep as a teenager?
Increased risk of obesity
What is the term for the process by which the brain rewrites and alters memories during retrieval?
Reconsolidation
What is a common characteristic of individuals with hyperthymesia?
They have a virtually perfect memory from about age 10
What is the primary difference between the ventral and dorsal pathways in the brain?
The ventral pathway is responsible for 'what' processing, while the dorsal pathway is responsible for 'where' processing
What is the primary reason why people with savant syndrome are able to demonstrate superior abilities?
They have a seemingly limitless memory
What is the primary reason why people may not remember childhood events, even if they were traumatic?
Because of repression of painful or anxiety-provoking information
What is a common association with individuals who have hyperthymesia?
They often exhibit OCD-type behavior
What is the primary difference between encoding failure and retrieval failure?
Encoding failure is the inability to store information, while retrieval failure is the inability to access information
What is the primary reason why people may remember events differently than they actually occurred?
Because of memory reconstruction
What is the primary function of the encoding process in memory?
To store information in long-term memory
What is the primary reason why sleep can improve memory recall?
Because sleep decreases the amount of interference from new memories
What is the primary difference between the three stages of memory processing?
Encoding is the process of storing information, storage is the process of retaining information, and retrieval is the process of accessing information
What is the primary characteristic of Fodorean modules?
Domain-specific and rapid processing
What is the main difference between modular and non-modular processing?
Modular processing is fast and domain-specific, while non-modular is slow and open-ended
What is the main idea rejected by Jerry Fodor's modular theory of mind?
The existence of faculties such as memory and attention
What is the primary function of modules in Fodorean theory?
To carry out very specific and circumscribed information processing tasks
What is the main characteristic of modular processing in terms of its operation?
It is fast and mandatory
What is a key feature of informationally encapsulated modules?
They are not affected by what is going on elsewhere in the mind
What is a characteristic of modular processes in cognition?
They are designed to solve specific, low-level cognitive tasks quickly and automatically
What is an example of a modular process in visual perception?
Face recognition
What is the main difference between Fodorean modules and Darwinian modules?
Fodorean modules are more autonomous and less interactive, while Darwinian modules are more complex and interactive
What is an example of a Darwinian module?
Emotion detection
What is the massive modularity hypothesis?
The idea that the mind is composed of many specialized modules that are not informationally encapsulated
What is the primary function of the fusiform face area?
To process visual information about faces
What is the primary difference between deontic and non-deontic conditionals?
Deontic conditionals are about permissions and prohibitions, while non-deontic conditionals are about facts and events
What is the primary function of modular processes in cognition?
To solve specific, low-level cognitive tasks quickly and automatically
What is the primary function of chunks in declarative memory?
To associate information with a particular activation level
What is an example of a modular process in social cognition?
Cheater detection
What is the key difference between modular and nonmodular processing in the brain?
Modular processing is faster and more efficient, while nonmodular processing is slower and more deliberative
What is the main difference between the massive modularity hypothesis and the Fodorean view of modularity?
The massive modularity hypothesis proposes a larger number of modules, while the Fodorean view proposes a smaller number of modules
What is the primary function of the buffers in the ACT-R cognitive architecture?
To facilitate communication between different modules
What is the key idea behind the massive modularity hypothesis?
The brain has many specialized tools, each designed for a specific task
What is the primary difference between symbolic and subsymbolic processing?
Symbolic processing involves clear, structured commands, while subsymbolic processing involves more fluid, intuitive processes
What determines the activation level of a chunk in declarative memory?
The usefulness of the chunk in the past
What is the primary function of the ACT-R cognitive architecture?
To facilitate communication between different modules in the brain
What is the key idea behind the analogy of the mind as a factory?
The mind is composed of many specialized modules that work together to perform complex tasks
What is the primary function of the nonmodular processes in the brain?
To oversee the entire operation of the modular processes
What is the key idea behind the analogy of the mind as a toolbox?
The mind is a toolbox filled with specialized tools for specific tasks
What is the primary reason why people are better at reasoning with deontic conditionals than with nondeontic conditionals?
Because deontic conditionals are related to permissions and prohibitions, and people have a specialized module for monitoring social exchanges and detecting cheaters
What is the primary function of the pattern-matching module in ACT-R?
To control which production rule gains access to the buffer by working out which production rule has the highest utility
What is the characteristic of ACT-R that makes it a hybrid architecture?
It combines symbolic and subsymbolic information processing
What is the primary reason why the genes for cooperative behavior could have become established?
Because there are mechanisms to detect and punish cheaters
What is the primary function of the declarative memory in ACT-R?
To store knowledge in the form of chunks
What is the primary function of the procedural memory in ACT-R?
To encode production rules
What is the primary difference between the cognitive layer and the perceptual-motor layer in ACT-R?
The cognitive layer is symbolic and the perceptual-motor layer is subsymbolic
What is the primary way that production rules are organized in ACT-R?
In a nested structure
What is the primary role of the buffers in ACT-R?
To manage the communication between modules
What is the primary reason why people are able to reason better with deontic conditionals when they are reframed in terms of permissions and prohibitions?
Because people have a specialized module for monitoring social exchanges and detecting cheaters
What is the essence of the nativist view in language acquisition?
Humans have an innate ability to learn language, with a universal grammar pre-wired into the brain
What is the primary distinction between the nativist view and connectionist models of language acquisition?
The nativist view emphasizes the role of innate knowledge, while connectionist models emphasize environmental interaction
What is the primary function of the universal grammar, according to Chomsky's theory?
To provide a set of grammatical rules common to all languages
What is the implication of Chomsky's theory on language acquisition?
That language acquisition is an inborn trait
What is the role of the brain in language acquisition, according to Chomsky's theory?
The brain plays an active role in language acquisition, with language being acquired through innate knowledge
What is the primary challenge to Chomsky's theory of language acquisition?
The theory is challenged by connectionist models that emphasize environmental interaction and cognitive development
What is the primary advantage of the connectionist approach to language comprehension?
It demonstrates the possibility of learning complex linguistic skills without innate knowledge.
What is the characteristic of children's language learning in Stage 2 of the process?
They make overregularization errors.
What is the primary challenge in early language learning, according to Bayesian models?
Segmenting continuous speech into distinct words.
What is the key feature of Bayesian models of language learning?
They demonstrate the importance of statistical regularities in speech.
What is the primary function of transitional probabilities in language learning?
To segment continuous speech into distinct words.
What is the characteristic of the Plunkett-Marchman multilayer neural network model of tense learning?
It reproduces the typical trajectory of language learning without encoded linguistic rules.
At what stage of language learning do children typically begin to make overregularization errors?
Stage 2.
What is the primary critique of innatism, according to Bayesian models?
It suggests that children can learn complex aspects of language from the input they receive.
What is the characteristic of language learning in children at Stage 1?
They use a small number of very common verbs in the past tense.
What is the primary difference between the connectionist approach and nativist approaches to language learning?
The connectionist approach demonstrates the possibility of learning complex linguistic skills without innate knowledge.
According to the Sapir-Whorf hypothesis, what is the relationship between language and thought?
Language influences thought
What is a key aspect of the social context of speech?
Taking into account other people's thoughts, feelings, and beliefs
What is a characteristic of bilingual individuals?
They think differently in different languages
What is a challenge in speech perception?
Separating the voice of the speaker from background noise
What is an example of how language influences thought?
Having two separate words for different shades of the same color
What is a difference in language use between men and women?
Men use more direct speech acts, while women use more indirect speech acts
What is the primary mechanism by which infants parse streams of sound into words?
Transitional probabilities
What is the term used to describe the phenomenon where children growing up in poverty have heard 30 million fewer words by age 3 compared to children from professional families?
Language gap
Which hemisphere of the brain is typically specialized for processing emotional tone and metaphors?
Right hemisphere
What is the term for the approach to reading that involves recognizing whole words by sight and directly understanding their meanings?
Direct access route
What is the primary limitation of language acquisition in individuals who are not exposed to language in childhood?
Difficulty with grammar
What is the term used to describe the study of the relationship between the brain and language?
Neurolinguistics
What percentage of phoneme differences in non-native languages can infants perceive at birth?
95%
What is the primary reason why TV talk is detrimental to language development in infants?
Lack of social interaction
What is the term used to describe the approach to reading that involves decoding the phonetic components of words to arrive at their meanings?
Indirect access route
What is the primary factor that accounts for the racial and socioeconomic gap in academic performance?
Disparities in language exposure
What is the primary difference between phonological dyslexia and surface dyslexia?
Phonological dyslexia is characterized by impairment in reading phonetic script, while surface dyslexia is characterized by impairment in reading pictographic script.
Which of the following is a characteristic of the comprehension hypothesis?
Language is acquired through the use of comprehensible input.
What is the primary reason why comprehensible input has been shown to be more effective in language acquisition?
It is more effective in terms of comprehension and use of language in context.
What is the primary goal of the natural language approach to second language learning?
To provide comprehensible input and promote language acquisition.
What is the term for the idea that language is acquired through the use of language skills, such as vocabulary and grammar?
The skill building hypothesis.
What is the primary difference between the way skilled adult readers and beginning readers process written language?
Skilled adult readers use direct access to meaning, while beginning readers use indirect access.
What is the primary function of the affective filter in language acquisition, according to Chomsky?
To block language acquisition due to anxiety or other emotional factors.
What is the primary difference between the comprehension hypothesis and the skill building hypothesis?
The comprehension hypothesis suggests that language is acquired through comprehensible input, while the skill building hypothesis suggests that language is acquired through the use of language skills.
What is the primary characteristic of the natural language approach to second language learning?
It emphasizes the importance of comprehensible input.
What is the primary advantage of the comprehension hypothesis over the skill building hypothesis?
It is more effective in terms of comprehension and use of language in context.
What percentage of the time does a physical event, such as a pause, mark a word boundary?
Less than 40%
What is the name of the AI lab-developed system that can lipread with 95% accuracy?
Lipnet
What is the name of the computer program that could engage in elementary conversational exchanges?
ELIZA
What is the name of the computer model that illustrates how grammatical rules might be represented in a cognitive system?
SHRDLU
What is the approximate vocabulary size of a 2.5-year-old child that chimpanzees can acquire?
Around 130 words
What is the percentage of accuracy with which computers can now replicate human voices?
95%
What is the name of the company that has created a program that can replicate voices of people, including powerful political figures?
Lyrebird
What is the term for the process of assigning meanings to individual words in a sentence?
Semantic analysis
What is the term for the analysis of sentence structure to identify nouns and verbs?
Syntactic analysis
What is the name of the virtual micro-world in which SHRDLU operates?
A computer screen
What is the estimated number of languages spoken globally?
6500
What is the minimum number of speakers required for a language to survive?
100000
What is the estimated vocabulary size of an average adult?
20000
How many words does Koko, the gorilla, have in her vocabulary?
1000
What is the name of the African grey parrot that could correctly answer questions about an object’s shape, color, or material?
Alex
Study Notes
The Turn to the Brain
- Early models of visual processing did not consider the brain's role in processing visual information.
- The 1980s saw a shift in focus towards understanding the brain's role in visual processing, with scientists like Ungerleider and Mishkin proposing the two-pathway hypothesis of visual processing.
Two Pathways of Visual Processing
- The two-pathway hypothesis proposes that there are two separate pathways for visual processing in the brain:
- Dorsal stream: involved in the perception of spatial location and motion.
- Ventral stream: involved in the perception of form and object recognition.
Marr's Tri-Level Hypothesis
- David Marr's hypothesis emphasizes the importance of understanding cognitive processes in terms of their implementation in the brain.
- The tri-level hypothesis consists of three levels:
- Computational level: highest level, concerned with the problem's purpose and output.
- Algorithmic level: middle level, concerned with the information-processing steps used to solve the problem.
- Implementational level: lowest level, concerned with the physical hardware used to implement the algorithm.
Marr's Model of Visual Processing
- Marr's model of visual processing proposes a step-by-step process for visual perception, combining knowledge from psychology, mathematics, brain science, and clinical studies.
- The model consists of three stages:
- First stage: analysis of the intensity of light and dark areas, detection of edges and contours.
- Second stage: grouping of similar features, creation of a 2.5-D sketch.
- Third stage: transformation of the 2.5-D sketch into a 3-D representation, using lines of symmetry and elongation.
Blindsight
- Blindsight is a rare neurological condition where individuals with damage to their visual cortex can still "guess" the location and identity of objects.
- Blindsight is thought to be due to a second pathway of visual perception that bypasses the visual cortex and goes directly to the emotional centers of the brain.
Mental Representations
- The debate about how mental representations are stored in the brain is between two theories:
- Analog code: mental representations are stored as pictorial representations.
- Propositional code: mental representations are stored as descriptive representations.
Evidence for Analog Code
- Research has found that:
- Mental rotation tasks take longer depending on the extent of the rotation.
- Mental imagery tasks show interference with visual perception.
- Neuroimaging research shows that visual imagery activates the same brain regions as visual perception.
Evidence for Propositional Code
- Research has found that:
- People have difficulty identifying parts of a figure if they haven't included them in their original verbal description.
- Ambiguous figures are difficult to reinterpret in a mental image.
Similarities Between Human Visual System and Neural Networks
- The human visual system and neural networks share similarities in their hierarchical organization and processing of visual information.
- Both the human visual system and neural networks process information in a hierarchical manner, with early stages processing basic features and later stages processing more complex features.
Hierarchical Organization of Human Visual System
- The human visual system is organized in a hierarchical manner:
- Superior colliculus: receives information from the retina and sends it to the lateral geniculate nucleus (LGN).
- LGN: sends information to area V1, the primary visual cortex.
- Area V1: processes basic features such as orientation and movement.
- Area V2: processes more complex features such as combinations of edges and shapes.
- Extrastriate cortex: processes additional features such as movement, spatial frequency, and color.
Three-Stage Modal Model of Memory
- The three-stage modal model of memory proposes that memory consists of:
- Sensory memory: brief storage of sensory information.
- Short-term memory: temporary storage of information.
- Long-term memory: permanent storage of information.
Alzheimer's Disease
- Alzheimer's disease is a neurocognitive disorder characterized by deterioration of memory, reasoning, and language abilities.
- Associated with loss of neurons in cortical and sub-cortical regions, and the presence of amyloid plaques and neurofibrillary tangles.
- Risk factors include genetic component, stroke, head trauma, and certain medical conditions.### Short-term/Working Memory
- Capacity is 7 +/- 2 items, e.g., letters, words, dots, and varies by task.
- Information decays rapidly unless maintained in consciousness through rehearsal.
- Working memory is an active process, not passive.
Long-term Memory (LTM)
- Unlimited in capacity and no time limit.
- Two types:
- Explicit/Declarative Memory: conscious recall of information, verbally transmittable, and includes episodic and semantic memory.
- Implicit/Non-Declarative Memory: influences behavior or thought without conscious recall, cannot be verbally transmitted, and includes procedural memory.
Brain Storage of Long-term Memory
- Memories do not reside in a single specific spot.
- Long-term potentiation (LTP) is a mechanism of learning in the brain, increasing the sensitivity of neurons.
The Hippocampus and Frontal Lobes
- The hippocampus acts as a "save" button for explicit memories, temporarily holding information before it's stored elsewhere.
- The frontal lobes are involved in recalling information and holding it in working memory.
Memory Disorders
- Dissociation: when brain damage affects two behaviors differently, suggesting separate processes.
Explicit Memories
- The hippocampus is central to explicit memory formation.
- Damage to the hippocampus and surrounding areas impairs explicit memory formation.
Implicit Memories
- Cerebellum: involved in learning procedural memories for skills.
- Basal Ganglia: involved in motor sequencing, e.g., in Parkinson's disease.
Organic vs. Functional Memory
- Scientific explanations include dual processing, attentional, and memory explanations.
Sleep Deprivation
- Impairs functioning of the prefrontal cortex, attention, memory, and decision making.
- Reduces neuroplasticity and hippocampal cell proliferation, leading to memory impairments.
- Sleep dramatically increases the likelihood of grasping hidden rules and making new connections.
Savant Syndrome and Hyperthymesia
- Savant Syndrome: exceptional abilities in one intellectual domain, often accompanied by severe intellectual disability.
- Hyperthymesia: rare condition of virtually perfect memory from around age 10.
Three Stages of Memory Processing and Forgetting
- Encoding: getting information into the brain.
- Storage: retaining information.
- Retrieval: getting information back out.
Forgetting
- Can occur due to encoding failure, storage decay, or retrieval failure.
- Encoding Failure: information never entered long-term memory.
- Storage Decay: information stored in long-term memory gradually fades.
- Retrieval Failure: failure to access information stored in long-term memory.
Memory as Reconstruction
- Memories are reconstructed and can be altered or incomplete.
- The brain rewrites memories during retrieval, linking them to present concerns and understanding.
Reconsolidation
- Researchers are experimenting with manipulating reconsolidation to treat traumatic memories.### Modular Processes and Visual Illusions
- Modular processes operate independently of other mental processes and are not influenced by general knowledge or expectations
- Examples of modular processes include the fusiform face area for face recognition
- Visual illusions, such as the Café wall illusion and Muller-Lyer illusion, provide support for the theory that certain aspects of visual perception may be modular
Massive Modularity Hypothesis
- The massive modularity hypothesis proposes that the mind does not do any central processing; instead, all information processing is modular
- The human mind is composed of Darwinian modules, each of which evolved to solve a specific set of problems encountered by our primitive ancestors
- Darwinian modules are not informationally encapsulated to the same degree as Fodorean modules
- Examples of Darwinian modules include emotion detection, intuitive mechanics, and folk psychology
Language Acquisition
- The skill building hypothesis proposes that language skills are acquired through learning and practice
- The comprehension hypothesis proposes that language acquisition results from comprehensible input
- Research supports the comprehension hypothesis, with evidence indicating that second language learners who read a lot have larger vocabularies than native speakers who don't read a lot
- The natural language approach to second language learning emphasizes listening, reading, and speaking comprehensible input without explicit language instruction or correction
ACT-R Cognitive Architecture
- ACT-R is a hybrid cognitive architecture that incorporates both symbolic and subsymbolic information processing
- The architecture consists of perceptual-motor, cognitive, and declarative memory layers, with communication between layers taking place via buffers
- Production rules are encoded in the form of physical symbols and are executed serially
- Subsymbolic calculations are used to determine which production rule to activate, based on utility and cost
Bayesian Language Learning
- Bayesian models of language learning propose that children learn language through sensitivity to statistical regularities in heard speech
- Children learn to segment continuous speech into distinct words by recognizing transitional probabilities
- Bayesian models argue against innatism, demonstrating how children can learn complex aspects of language from the input they receive without needing innate knowledge of language structure
Explore the evolution of visual processing models, from top-down analysis to understanding the brain's role. Learn about the 1982 theory of Ungerleider and Mishkin on two visual systems in the brain.
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