The Turn to the Brain: Understanding Visual Process
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Questions and Answers

What was a limiting factor of early models of how we see?

  • They focused too much on the ventral stream
  • They didn't consider the neural implementation (correct)
  • They only studied the dorsal stream
  • They didn't account for form perception

    • What was a major breakthrough in understanding the brain's role in visual processing?

  • The development of a top-down analysis approach
  • The ability to observe brain function in the 1980s (correct)
  • The introduction of Marr's tri-level hypothesis
  • The discovery of the ventral stream

    • What is the primary function of the dorsal stream?

  • Perception of color
  • Perception of movement
  • Perception of spatial location (correct)
  • Perception of form

    • What is the primary function of the ventral stream?

    <p>Perception of form</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the highest level of analysis in Marr's tri-level hypothesis?

    <p>Computational level</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What question is addressed at the computational level in Marr's tri-level hypothesis?

    <p>What output is the system trying to get?</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary goal of Marr's theory of visual processing?

    <p>To recognize objects and make sense of visual data</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the main purpose of the first stage of Marr's theory?

    <p>To identify edges and contours in an image</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the main difference between the 2.5-D sketch and the 3-D sketch in Marr's theory?

    <p>The 2.5-D sketch is focused on the viewer, while the 3-D sketch is focused on the object</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the purpose of the line of symmetry in Marr's theory?

    <p>To split an object into two identical halves</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the benefit of Marr's theory in recognizing objects?

    <p>It helps recognize objects from different angles and under different conditions</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the main contribution of Marr's theory to the field of computer vision?

    <p>Creating a comprehensive model of human visual processing</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the proposed mechanism for 'intuition' in blindsight patients?

    <p>A loop through the limbic system from the superior colliculus</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the main distinction between analog and propositional codes?

    <p>The manner in which the information is represented</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the significance of the mental rotation experiments?

    <p>They suggest that mental information is encoded differently than digital computers</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What was the finding of the experiments by Roger Shepard and Jacqueline Metzler?

    <p>That cognitive information processing involves forms of representation that differ from digital computers</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the characteristic of digitally encoded information processing?

    <p>The time it takes to process information depends on the quantity of information</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is unique about the way blindsight patients process visual information?

    <p>They use a secondary visual pathway that bypasses the visual cortex</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What was the purpose of the experiment by Stephen Kosslyn?

    <p>To study the neural correlates of cognitive styles</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the main debate surrounding mental imagery?

    <p>Whether mental imagery is encoded in an analog or propositional code</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the characteristic of analog codes?

    <p>They are pictorial and represent information visually</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the significance of the finding that some people are visualizers and others are verbalizers?

    <p>It demonstrates the neural correlates of different cognitive styles</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary reason for the variation in the length of time it takes to answer questions based on distance from the original point of focus?

    <p>The size of the mental image affects the speed of judgment</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the effect of visual imagery on visual perception, according to the research?

    <p>Visual imagery interferes with visual perception</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What percentage of the same brain regions are activated during visual imagery and visual perception, according to neuroimaging research?

    <p>70-90%</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the characteristic of people with prosopagnosia, according to the research?

    <p>They cannot create a mental image of a face</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary difference between the analog and propositional codes, according to the research?

    <p>The type of representation</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the similarity between the human visual system and neural networks, according to the research?

    <p>Both are organized in a hierarchical and retinotopic manner</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the main difference between the organization of Area V1 and Area V2 in the visual cortex?

    <p>Area V1 is organized in a way that nearby parts of what we see are processed by nearby parts of V1</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary function of the superior colliculus in the visual processing pathway?

    <p>To send information to the lateral geniculate nucleus (LGN)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the term for the idea that points on objects at different distances from the viewer will land on slightly different spots on the two retinas?

    <p>Retinal disparity</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the main difference between the ventral (“what”) and dorsal (“where”) pathways in the visual processing?

    <p>The ventral pathway processes information related to object recognition, while the dorsal pathway processes information related to object location</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the name of the theory that suggests that the retina has three types of color receptors, each especially sensitive to one of three colors?

    <p>Trichromatic Theory</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the term for the phenomenon where some neurons are turned “on” by red but turned “off” by green, resulting in color afterimages?

    <p>Opponent-Process Theory</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the function of the lateral geniculate nucleus (LGN) in the visual processing pathway?

    <p>To send information to Area V1</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the name of the area in the visual cortex that is specialized for face recognition?

    <p>Fusiform face area</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the percentage of Americans who are red-green colorblind?

    <p>8%</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary function of the striate cortex in the visual processing pathway?

    <p>To connect to Area V1</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary function of sensory memory?

    <p>To store visual and auditory information temporarily</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the characteristic of Eidetic imagery?

    <p>It's the ability to remember images in great detail for a long time</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the difference between Iconic memory and Echoic memory?

    <p>Iconic memory is for visual and Echoic memory is for auditory</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Why is photographic memory not particularly helpful?

    <p>Because it doesn't improve memory organization skills</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What percentage of schoolchildren were found to have Eidetic imagery?

    <p>About 5%</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Why do memory experts not usually have a photographic memory?

    <p>Because their skill is in organizing information in their memory, not in storing it as pictures</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary characteristic of Alzheimer's disease?

    <p>It is a neurocognitive disorder characterized by deterioration of memory, reasoning, and language abilities</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary cause of Korsakoff's amnesia?

    <p>Thiamine deficiency</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the approximate capacity of short-term/working memory?

    <p>7 +/- 2 items</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary risk factor for developing neurocognitive disorders?

    <p>Hearing loss</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary function of the hippocampus in memory formation?

    <p>Temporarily holding to-be-remembered information</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the term for the process by which learning occurs in the brain?

    <p>Long-term potentiation</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the effect of anticholinergics on the brain?

    <p>They reduce brain volume and lower levels of glucose metabolism</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the main difference between explicit and implicit memory?

    <p>Conscious recall</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the characteristic of amyloid plaques in Alzheimer's disease?

    <p>They contain a core of misfolded b-amyloid protein</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the purpose of the frontal lobes in memory formation?

    <p>Recalling information and holding it in working memory</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the association between tooth and gum disease and Alzheimer's disease?

    <p>Tooth and gum disease increases the risk of Alzheimer's disease</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the term for the phenomenon where brain damage affects two behaviors very differently?

    <p>Dissociation</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the time frame for short-term/working memory?

    <p>5-30 seconds</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the characteristic of explicit/declarative memory?

    <p>Involves conscious recall</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary function of the hippocampus in storing explicit memories?

    <p>Temporarily holding to-be-remembered information</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary function of the hippocampus?

    <p>Formation of explicit memories</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the term for the increase in the excitability of a neuron to a particular synaptic input caused by repeated high-frequency activity?

    <p>Long-term potentiation</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the characteristic of individuals with full temporal lobe amnesia?

    <p>They have normal IQs and cannot form new explicit memories</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which structure is involved in the formation of implicit memories for skills?

    <p>Cerebellum</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the term for the neurons involved in spatial navigation?

    <p>Place cells</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the effect of damage to the hippocampus on Clive Wearing's memory?

    <p>He cannot remember anything that happened more than a few minutes previously</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the correlation between the volume of the posterior hippocampus and the experience of London taxi drivers?

    <p>The volume of the posterior hippocampus increases with the experience of London taxi drivers</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary factor that is positively correlated with experiencing déjà vu?

    <p>Socioeconomic level</p> Signup and view all the answers

    According to the dual processing explanation, what could cause the brain to interpret sensory data as two separate experiences?

    <p>A slight alteration in transmission speed in one pathway</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a common effect of sleep deprivation on cognitive functions?

    <p>Impaired judgment</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the term for a phenomenon where people are oftentimes unaware of their impaired cognitive functions due to sleep deprivation?

    <p>Unrecognized cognitive impairment</p> Signup and view all the answers

    According to the attentional explanation, what could cause a strong feeling of familiarity during déjà vu?

    <p>A combination of a fully processed perceptual experience and a minimally processed impression</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is an example of implicit familiarity without explicit recollection, as explained by the memory explanation?

    <p>Seeing a lamp in your friend's apartment that is similar to one that used to be in your aunt's house</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the impact of sleep deprivation on the prefrontal cortex?

    <p>Impairs functioning</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What percentage of ability to make new memories is lost when the brain doesn't get sleep?

    <p>40%</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the result of a shutdown of the medial prefrontal cortex?

    <p>Increased anxiety</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the impact of sleep deprivation on the immune system?

    <p>It depresses the immune system</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the result of sacrificing sleep time to study?

    <p>Worsened academic performance</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the relationship between sleep and glucose metabolism in adolescents?

    <p>Sleep impairs glucose metabolism</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary mechanism by which the treatment of traumatic memories is thought to disrupt reconsolidation?

    <p>Through the use of Propranolol, a memory-blocking drug</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the impact of sleep deprivation on athletic ability?

    <p>It improves athletic ability</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a common characteristic of individuals with savant syndrome?

    <p>They have a severe intellectual disability</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary reason why people who stay physically active and are non-obese have a lower risk of developing disease?

    <p>Because they have a lower risk of Alzheimer's disease</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the result of treating insomnia with CBT-I?

    <p>It is more effective than sleep meds</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the consequence of working 80 hours per week as a medical intern?

    <p>Impaired performance</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary cause of storage decay in memory?

    <p>Interference from new memories formed during the retention interval</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary difference between schema-consistent material and repisodic memory?

    <p>Schema-consistent material is generalized information, while repisodic memory is a blend of details</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the risk of not getting sufficient sleep as a teenager?

    <p>Increased risk of obesity</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the term for the process by which the brain rewrites and alters memories during retrieval?

    <p>Reconsolidation</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a common characteristic of individuals with hyperthymesia?

    <p>They have a virtually perfect memory from about age 10</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary difference between the ventral and dorsal pathways in the brain?

    <p>The ventral pathway is responsible for 'what' processing, while the dorsal pathway is responsible for 'where' processing</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary reason why people with savant syndrome are able to demonstrate superior abilities?

    <p>They have a seemingly limitless memory</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary reason why people may not remember childhood events, even if they were traumatic?

    <p>Because of repression of painful or anxiety-provoking information</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a common association with individuals who have hyperthymesia?

    <p>They often exhibit OCD-type behavior</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary difference between encoding failure and retrieval failure?

    <p>Encoding failure is the inability to store information, while retrieval failure is the inability to access information</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary reason why people may remember events differently than they actually occurred?

    <p>Because of memory reconstruction</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary function of the encoding process in memory?

    <p>To store information in long-term memory</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary reason why sleep can improve memory recall?

    <p>Because sleep decreases the amount of interference from new memories</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary difference between the three stages of memory processing?

    <p>Encoding is the process of storing information, storage is the process of retaining information, and retrieval is the process of accessing information</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary characteristic of Fodorean modules?

    <p>Domain-specific and rapid processing</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the main difference between modular and non-modular processing?

    <p>Modular processing is fast and domain-specific, while non-modular is slow and open-ended</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the main idea rejected by Jerry Fodor's modular theory of mind?

    <p>The existence of faculties such as memory and attention</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary function of modules in Fodorean theory?

    <p>To carry out very specific and circumscribed information processing tasks</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the main characteristic of modular processing in terms of its operation?

    <p>It is fast and mandatory</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a key feature of informationally encapsulated modules?

    <p>They are not affected by what is going on elsewhere in the mind</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a characteristic of modular processes in cognition?

    <p>They are designed to solve specific, low-level cognitive tasks quickly and automatically</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is an example of a modular process in visual perception?

    <p>Face recognition</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the main difference between Fodorean modules and Darwinian modules?

    <p>Fodorean modules are more autonomous and less interactive, while Darwinian modules are more complex and interactive</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is an example of a Darwinian module?

    <p>Emotion detection</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the massive modularity hypothesis?

    <p>The idea that the mind is composed of many specialized modules that are not informationally encapsulated</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary function of the fusiform face area?

    <p>To process visual information about faces</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary difference between deontic and non-deontic conditionals?

    <p>Deontic conditionals are about permissions and prohibitions, while non-deontic conditionals are about facts and events</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary function of modular processes in cognition?

    <p>To solve specific, low-level cognitive tasks quickly and automatically</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary function of chunks in declarative memory?

    <p>To associate information with a particular activation level</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is an example of a modular process in social cognition?

    <p>Cheater detection</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the key difference between modular and nonmodular processing in the brain?

    <p>Modular processing is faster and more efficient, while nonmodular processing is slower and more deliberative</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the main difference between the massive modularity hypothesis and the Fodorean view of modularity?

    <p>The massive modularity hypothesis proposes a larger number of modules, while the Fodorean view proposes a smaller number of modules</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary function of the buffers in the ACT-R cognitive architecture?

    <p>To facilitate communication between different modules</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the key idea behind the massive modularity hypothesis?

    <p>The brain has many specialized tools, each designed for a specific task</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary difference between symbolic and subsymbolic processing?

    <p>Symbolic processing involves clear, structured commands, while subsymbolic processing involves more fluid, intuitive processes</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What determines the activation level of a chunk in declarative memory?

    <p>The usefulness of the chunk in the past</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary function of the ACT-R cognitive architecture?

    <p>To facilitate communication between different modules in the brain</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the key idea behind the analogy of the mind as a factory?

    <p>The mind is composed of many specialized modules that work together to perform complex tasks</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary function of the nonmodular processes in the brain?

    <p>To oversee the entire operation of the modular processes</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the key idea behind the analogy of the mind as a toolbox?

    <p>The mind is a toolbox filled with specialized tools for specific tasks</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary reason why people are better at reasoning with deontic conditionals than with nondeontic conditionals?

    <p>Because deontic conditionals are related to permissions and prohibitions, and people have a specialized module for monitoring social exchanges and detecting cheaters</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary function of the pattern-matching module in ACT-R?

    <p>To control which production rule gains access to the buffer by working out which production rule has the highest utility</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the characteristic of ACT-R that makes it a hybrid architecture?

    <p>It combines symbolic and subsymbolic information processing</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary reason why the genes for cooperative behavior could have become established?

    <p>Because there are mechanisms to detect and punish cheaters</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary function of the declarative memory in ACT-R?

    <p>To store knowledge in the form of chunks</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary function of the procedural memory in ACT-R?

    <p>To encode production rules</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary difference between the cognitive layer and the perceptual-motor layer in ACT-R?

    <p>The cognitive layer is symbolic and the perceptual-motor layer is subsymbolic</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary way that production rules are organized in ACT-R?

    <p>In a nested structure</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary role of the buffers in ACT-R?

    <p>To manage the communication between modules</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary reason why people are able to reason better with deontic conditionals when they are reframed in terms of permissions and prohibitions?

    <p>Because people have a specialized module for monitoring social exchanges and detecting cheaters</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the essence of the nativist view in language acquisition?

    <p>Humans have an innate ability to learn language, with a universal grammar pre-wired into the brain</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary distinction between the nativist view and connectionist models of language acquisition?

    <p>The nativist view emphasizes the role of innate knowledge, while connectionist models emphasize environmental interaction</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary function of the universal grammar, according to Chomsky's theory?

    <p>To provide a set of grammatical rules common to all languages</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the implication of Chomsky's theory on language acquisition?

    <p>That language acquisition is an inborn trait</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the role of the brain in language acquisition, according to Chomsky's theory?

    <p>The brain plays an active role in language acquisition, with language being acquired through innate knowledge</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary challenge to Chomsky's theory of language acquisition?

    <p>The theory is challenged by connectionist models that emphasize environmental interaction and cognitive development</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary advantage of the connectionist approach to language comprehension?

    <p>It demonstrates the possibility of learning complex linguistic skills without innate knowledge.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the characteristic of children's language learning in Stage 2 of the process?

    <p>They make overregularization errors.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary challenge in early language learning, according to Bayesian models?

    <p>Segmenting continuous speech into distinct words.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the key feature of Bayesian models of language learning?

    <p>They demonstrate the importance of statistical regularities in speech.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary function of transitional probabilities in language learning?

    <p>To segment continuous speech into distinct words.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the characteristic of the Plunkett-Marchman multilayer neural network model of tense learning?

    <p>It reproduces the typical trajectory of language learning without encoded linguistic rules.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    At what stage of language learning do children typically begin to make overregularization errors?

    <p>Stage 2.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary critique of innatism, according to Bayesian models?

    <p>It suggests that children can learn complex aspects of language from the input they receive.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the characteristic of language learning in children at Stage 1?

    <p>They use a small number of very common verbs in the past tense.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary difference between the connectionist approach and nativist approaches to language learning?

    <p>The connectionist approach demonstrates the possibility of learning complex linguistic skills without innate knowledge.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    According to the Sapir-Whorf hypothesis, what is the relationship between language and thought?

    <p>Language influences thought</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a key aspect of the social context of speech?

    <p>Taking into account other people's thoughts, feelings, and beliefs</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a characteristic of bilingual individuals?

    <p>They think differently in different languages</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a challenge in speech perception?

    <p>Separating the voice of the speaker from background noise</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is an example of how language influences thought?

    <p>Having two separate words for different shades of the same color</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a difference in language use between men and women?

    <p>Men use more direct speech acts, while women use more indirect speech acts</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary mechanism by which infants parse streams of sound into words?

    <p>Transitional probabilities</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the term used to describe the phenomenon where children growing up in poverty have heard 30 million fewer words by age 3 compared to children from professional families?

    <p>Language gap</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which hemisphere of the brain is typically specialized for processing emotional tone and metaphors?

    <p>Right hemisphere</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the term for the approach to reading that involves recognizing whole words by sight and directly understanding their meanings?

    <p>Direct access route</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary limitation of language acquisition in individuals who are not exposed to language in childhood?

    <p>Difficulty with grammar</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the term used to describe the study of the relationship between the brain and language?

    <p>Neurolinguistics</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What percentage of phoneme differences in non-native languages can infants perceive at birth?

    <p>95%</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary reason why TV talk is detrimental to language development in infants?

    <p>Lack of social interaction</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the term used to describe the approach to reading that involves decoding the phonetic components of words to arrive at their meanings?

    <p>Indirect access route</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary factor that accounts for the racial and socioeconomic gap in academic performance?

    <p>Disparities in language exposure</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary difference between phonological dyslexia and surface dyslexia?

    <p>Phonological dyslexia is characterized by impairment in reading phonetic script, while surface dyslexia is characterized by impairment in reading pictographic script.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following is a characteristic of the comprehension hypothesis?

    <p>Language is acquired through the use of comprehensible input.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary reason why comprehensible input has been shown to be more effective in language acquisition?

    <p>It is more effective in terms of comprehension and use of language in context.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary goal of the natural language approach to second language learning?

    <p>To provide comprehensible input and promote language acquisition.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the term for the idea that language is acquired through the use of language skills, such as vocabulary and grammar?

    <p>The skill building hypothesis.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary difference between the way skilled adult readers and beginning readers process written language?

    <p>Skilled adult readers use direct access to meaning, while beginning readers use indirect access.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary function of the affective filter in language acquisition, according to Chomsky?

    <p>To block language acquisition due to anxiety or other emotional factors.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary difference between the comprehension hypothesis and the skill building hypothesis?

    <p>The comprehension hypothesis suggests that language is acquired through comprehensible input, while the skill building hypothesis suggests that language is acquired through the use of language skills.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary characteristic of the natural language approach to second language learning?

    <p>It emphasizes the importance of comprehensible input.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary advantage of the comprehension hypothesis over the skill building hypothesis?

    <p>It is more effective in terms of comprehension and use of language in context.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What percentage of the time does a physical event, such as a pause, mark a word boundary?

    <p>Less than 40%</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the name of the AI lab-developed system that can lipread with 95% accuracy?

    <p>Lipnet</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the name of the computer program that could engage in elementary conversational exchanges?

    <p>ELIZA</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the name of the computer model that illustrates how grammatical rules might be represented in a cognitive system?

    <p>SHRDLU</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the approximate vocabulary size of a 2.5-year-old child that chimpanzees can acquire?

    <p>Around 130 words</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the percentage of accuracy with which computers can now replicate human voices?

    <p>95%</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the name of the company that has created a program that can replicate voices of people, including powerful political figures?

    <p>Lyrebird</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the term for the process of assigning meanings to individual words in a sentence?

    <p>Semantic analysis</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the term for the analysis of sentence structure to identify nouns and verbs?

    <p>Syntactic analysis</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the name of the virtual micro-world in which SHRDLU operates?

    <p>A computer screen</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the estimated number of languages spoken globally?

    <p>6500</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the minimum number of speakers required for a language to survive?

    <p>100000</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the estimated vocabulary size of an average adult?

    <p>20000</p> Signup and view all the answers

    How many words does Koko, the gorilla, have in her vocabulary?

    <p>1000</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the name of the African grey parrot that could correctly answer questions about an object’s shape, color, or material?

    <p>Alex</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Study Notes

    The Turn to the Brain

    • Early models of visual processing did not consider the brain's role in processing visual information.
    • The 1980s saw a shift in focus towards understanding the brain's role in visual processing, with scientists like Ungerleider and Mishkin proposing the two-pathway hypothesis of visual processing.

    Two Pathways of Visual Processing

    • The two-pathway hypothesis proposes that there are two separate pathways for visual processing in the brain:
      • Dorsal stream: involved in the perception of spatial location and motion.
      • Ventral stream: involved in the perception of form and object recognition.

    Marr's Tri-Level Hypothesis

    • David Marr's hypothesis emphasizes the importance of understanding cognitive processes in terms of their implementation in the brain.
    • The tri-level hypothesis consists of three levels:
      • Computational level: highest level, concerned with the problem's purpose and output.
      • Algorithmic level: middle level, concerned with the information-processing steps used to solve the problem.
      • Implementational level: lowest level, concerned with the physical hardware used to implement the algorithm.

    Marr's Model of Visual Processing

    • Marr's model of visual processing proposes a step-by-step process for visual perception, combining knowledge from psychology, mathematics, brain science, and clinical studies.
    • The model consists of three stages:
      • First stage: analysis of the intensity of light and dark areas, detection of edges and contours.
      • Second stage: grouping of similar features, creation of a 2.5-D sketch.
      • Third stage: transformation of the 2.5-D sketch into a 3-D representation, using lines of symmetry and elongation.

    Blindsight

    • Blindsight is a rare neurological condition where individuals with damage to their visual cortex can still "guess" the location and identity of objects.
    • Blindsight is thought to be due to a second pathway of visual perception that bypasses the visual cortex and goes directly to the emotional centers of the brain.

    Mental Representations

    • The debate about how mental representations are stored in the brain is between two theories:
      • Analog code: mental representations are stored as pictorial representations.
      • Propositional code: mental representations are stored as descriptive representations.

    Evidence for Analog Code

    • Research has found that:
      • Mental rotation tasks take longer depending on the extent of the rotation.
      • Mental imagery tasks show interference with visual perception.
      • Neuroimaging research shows that visual imagery activates the same brain regions as visual perception.

    Evidence for Propositional Code

    • Research has found that:
      • People have difficulty identifying parts of a figure if they haven't included them in their original verbal description.
      • Ambiguous figures are difficult to reinterpret in a mental image.

    Similarities Between Human Visual System and Neural Networks

    • The human visual system and neural networks share similarities in their hierarchical organization and processing of visual information.
    • Both the human visual system and neural networks process information in a hierarchical manner, with early stages processing basic features and later stages processing more complex features.

    Hierarchical Organization of Human Visual System

    • The human visual system is organized in a hierarchical manner:
      • Superior colliculus: receives information from the retina and sends it to the lateral geniculate nucleus (LGN).
      • LGN: sends information to area V1, the primary visual cortex.
      • Area V1: processes basic features such as orientation and movement.
      • Area V2: processes more complex features such as combinations of edges and shapes.
      • Extrastriate cortex: processes additional features such as movement, spatial frequency, and color.

    Three-Stage Modal Model of Memory

    • The three-stage modal model of memory proposes that memory consists of:
      • Sensory memory: brief storage of sensory information.
      • Short-term memory: temporary storage of information.
      • Long-term memory: permanent storage of information.

    Alzheimer's Disease

    • Alzheimer's disease is a neurocognitive disorder characterized by deterioration of memory, reasoning, and language abilities.
    • Associated with loss of neurons in cortical and sub-cortical regions, and the presence of amyloid plaques and neurofibrillary tangles.
    • Risk factors include genetic component, stroke, head trauma, and certain medical conditions.### Short-term/Working Memory
    • Capacity is 7 +/- 2 items, e.g., letters, words, dots, and varies by task.
    • Information decays rapidly unless maintained in consciousness through rehearsal.
    • Working memory is an active process, not passive.

    Long-term Memory (LTM)

    • Unlimited in capacity and no time limit.
    • Two types:
      • Explicit/Declarative Memory: conscious recall of information, verbally transmittable, and includes episodic and semantic memory.
      • Implicit/Non-Declarative Memory: influences behavior or thought without conscious recall, cannot be verbally transmitted, and includes procedural memory.

    Brain Storage of Long-term Memory

    • Memories do not reside in a single specific spot.
    • Long-term potentiation (LTP) is a mechanism of learning in the brain, increasing the sensitivity of neurons.

    The Hippocampus and Frontal Lobes

    • The hippocampus acts as a "save" button for explicit memories, temporarily holding information before it's stored elsewhere.
    • The frontal lobes are involved in recalling information and holding it in working memory.

    Memory Disorders

    • Dissociation: when brain damage affects two behaviors differently, suggesting separate processes.

    Explicit Memories

    • The hippocampus is central to explicit memory formation.
    • Damage to the hippocampus and surrounding areas impairs explicit memory formation.

    Implicit Memories

    • Cerebellum: involved in learning procedural memories for skills.
    • Basal Ganglia: involved in motor sequencing, e.g., in Parkinson's disease.

    Organic vs. Functional Memory

    • Scientific explanations include dual processing, attentional, and memory explanations.

    Sleep Deprivation

    • Impairs functioning of the prefrontal cortex, attention, memory, and decision making.
    • Reduces neuroplasticity and hippocampal cell proliferation, leading to memory impairments.
    • Sleep dramatically increases the likelihood of grasping hidden rules and making new connections.

    Savant Syndrome and Hyperthymesia

    • Savant Syndrome: exceptional abilities in one intellectual domain, often accompanied by severe intellectual disability.
    • Hyperthymesia: rare condition of virtually perfect memory from around age 10.

    Three Stages of Memory Processing and Forgetting

    • Encoding: getting information into the brain.
    • Storage: retaining information.
    • Retrieval: getting information back out.

    Forgetting

    • Can occur due to encoding failure, storage decay, or retrieval failure.
    • Encoding Failure: information never entered long-term memory.
    • Storage Decay: information stored in long-term memory gradually fades.
    • Retrieval Failure: failure to access information stored in long-term memory.

    Memory as Reconstruction

    • Memories are reconstructed and can be altered or incomplete.
    • The brain rewrites memories during retrieval, linking them to present concerns and understanding.

    Reconsolidation

    • Researchers are experimenting with manipulating reconsolidation to treat traumatic memories.### Modular Processes and Visual Illusions
    • Modular processes operate independently of other mental processes and are not influenced by general knowledge or expectations
    • Examples of modular processes include the fusiform face area for face recognition
    • Visual illusions, such as the Café wall illusion and Muller-Lyer illusion, provide support for the theory that certain aspects of visual perception may be modular

    Massive Modularity Hypothesis

    • The massive modularity hypothesis proposes that the mind does not do any central processing; instead, all information processing is modular
    • The human mind is composed of Darwinian modules, each of which evolved to solve a specific set of problems encountered by our primitive ancestors
    • Darwinian modules are not informationally encapsulated to the same degree as Fodorean modules
    • Examples of Darwinian modules include emotion detection, intuitive mechanics, and folk psychology

    Language Acquisition

    • The skill building hypothesis proposes that language skills are acquired through learning and practice
    • The comprehension hypothesis proposes that language acquisition results from comprehensible input
    • Research supports the comprehension hypothesis, with evidence indicating that second language learners who read a lot have larger vocabularies than native speakers who don't read a lot
    • The natural language approach to second language learning emphasizes listening, reading, and speaking comprehensible input without explicit language instruction or correction

    ACT-R Cognitive Architecture

    • ACT-R is a hybrid cognitive architecture that incorporates both symbolic and subsymbolic information processing
    • The architecture consists of perceptual-motor, cognitive, and declarative memory layers, with communication between layers taking place via buffers
    • Production rules are encoded in the form of physical symbols and are executed serially
    • Subsymbolic calculations are used to determine which production rule to activate, based on utility and cost

    Bayesian Language Learning

    • Bayesian models of language learning propose that children learn language through sensitivity to statistical regularities in heard speech
    • Children learn to segment continuous speech into distinct words by recognizing transitional probabilities
    • Bayesian models argue against innatism, demonstrating how children can learn complex aspects of language from the input they receive without needing innate knowledge of language structure

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    Description

    Explore the evolution of visual processing models, from top-down analysis to understanding the brain's role. Learn about the 1982 theory of Ungerleider and Mishkin on two visual systems in the brain.

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