The Telencephalon: Cerebral Cortex and Basal Ganglia
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Questions and Answers

What is the approximate surface area of the human cerebral cortex?

  • 2,200 to 2,400 cm2 (correct)
  • 4,000 to 4,400 cm2
  • 3,000 to 3,400 cm2
  • 1,000 to 1,200 cm2

    • What is the main function of the basal ganglia?

  • Processing visual information
  • Involved in a variety of crucial brain functions (correct)
  • Regulating body temperature
  • Controlling hunger and thirst

    • What is the term for the protruding areas seen on the surface of the cortex?

  • Sulci
  • Gyri (correct)
  • Lobes
  • Fissures

    • Who divided the brain into distinct regions based on the underlying cytoarchitectonics?

    <p>Brodmann</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary function of the parietal lobe?

    <p>Receiving sensory input about touch, pain, temperature, and limb position</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary function of the occipital lobe?

    <p>Processing visual information</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the main function of the limbic lobe?

    <p>Involved in emotional processing, learning, and memory</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the name of the sulcus that separates the frontal and parietal lobes?

    <p>Central sulcus</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What type of ion channels are always open, regardless of stimuli?

    <p>Passive channels</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the purpose of voltage-gated channels in generating an action potential?

    <p>To open and close according to the membrane potential</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the function of myelin in neural transmission?

    <p>To facilitate rapid transmission of action potentials</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Where are voltage-gated Na+ and K+ channels located?

    <p>In the nodes of Ranvier</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What happens to the action potential amplitude when the triggering depolarization reaches threshold?

    <p>It remains the same, regardless of the size of the depolarization</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary function of neurotransmitters in synaptic transmission?

    <p>To bind to specific receptors on the postsynaptic neuron</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the function of voltage-gated ion channels in the spike-triggering zone?

    <p>To open and close rapidly, changing their conductance to specific ions</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the role of Ca2+ in neurotransmitter release?

    <p>To mediate neurotransmitter release</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the function of the postsynaptic neuron in synaptic transmission?

    <p>To contain receptors specific for the neurotransmitter</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the difference in the voltage across the neuronal membrane during rest called?

    <p>Resting membrane potential</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the term for the structure where neurons communicate with other neurons and cells?

    <p>Synapses</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the function of the axon in a neuron?

    <p>To transmit information to other neurons</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the term for the cell that is located before the synapse with respect to information flow?

    <p>Presynaptic cell</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the result of the rapid opening and closing of voltage-gated ion channels in the spike-triggering zone?

    <p>The generation of an action potential</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the term for the difference in the concentration of ions across the neuronal membrane?

    <p>Electrical gradient</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the function of the dendrites in a neuron?

    <p>To receive signals from other neurons</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary function of astrocytes?

    <p>Modulating neural activity</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which type of glial cell is responsible for forming myelin in the peripheral nervous system?

    <p>Schwann cell</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the main function of the parasympathetic system?

    <p>Decreasing heart rate and stimulating digestion</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the main function of microglial cells?

    <p>Engulfing damaged cells</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the central nervous system composed of?

    <p>Brain and spinal cord</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the role of the autonomic nervous system?

    <p>Controlling the action of smooth muscles and the heart</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which type of glial cell is responsible for forming myelin in the central nervous system?

    <p>Oligodendrocyte</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the neurotransmitter used by the sympathetic system?

    <p>Norepinephrine</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What are the two neurohypophyseal hormones mentioned in the text?

    <p>Oxytocin and vasopressin</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which type of neurotransmitter is similar to opiate drugs?

    <p>Opioid peptides</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary function of synaptic transmission?

    <p>To transmit information from one neuron to another</p> Signup and view all the answers

    How can neurotransmitters be removed from the receptor after binding?

    <p>Through active reuptake, enzymatic breakdown, or diffusion away from the synapse</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the main difference between chemical and electrical synapses?

    <p>Electrical synapses pass current directly from one neuron to another, while chemical synapses do not</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the function of the postsynaptic receptor in chemical transmission?

    <p>To bind neurotransmitters and cause excitatory or inhibitory postsynaptic potentials</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which group of neurotransmitters does not fit neatly into another category?

    <p>Other neuropeptides</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Where are synapses typically found on a neuron?

    <p>On dendrites and at axon terminals</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary function of astrocytes in the central nervous system?

    <p>Modulating neural activity and forming the blood-brain barrier</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which type of glial cell is responsible for forming myelin in the peripheral nervous system?

    <p>Schwann cell</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary function of the parasympathetic system?

    <p>Decreasing heart rate and stimulating digestion</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary function of the autonomic nervous system?

    <p>Involved in controlling the action of smooth muscles, the heart, and various glands</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the central nervous system composed of?

    <p>The brain and spinal cord</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which type of neurotransmitter is used by the sympathetic system?

    <p>Norepinephrine</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary function of microglial cells?

    <p>Engulfing damaged cells as part of the immune response</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the role of glial cells in the speed of information transfer?

    <p>They form myelin around the axons of neurons</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which part of the brain connects the two hemispheres?

    <p>Corpus callosum</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which part of the brain integrates information about the body and motor commands?

    <p>Cerebellum</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the function of the hypothalamus?

    <p>To regulate autonomic nervous system and endocrine system</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the function of the thalamus?

    <p>To process sensory information</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the function of the pituitary gland?

    <p>To release hormones into the bloodstream</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the main function of the spinal cord?

    <p>To conduct final motor signals to the muscles and relay sensory information from the body's peripheral receptors</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the main function of the brainstem?

    <p>To carry out many sensory and motor processes</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the role of the autonomic nervous system?

    <p>To regulate various involuntary functions necessary for maintaining homeostasis</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary function of the temporal lobe?

    <p>Auditory, visual, and multimodal processing</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What are the sulci or fissures in the cerebral cortex?

    <p>Enfolded regions of cortex</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the main difference between the central nervous system and peripheral nervous system?

    <p>One is composed of the brain and spinal cord, the other of nerves</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the main function of the parasympathetic system?

    <p>Maintaining homeostasis and promoting relaxation</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the term for the structure where neurons communicate with other neurons and cells?

    <p>Synapse</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary function of the occipital lobe?

    <p>Processing visual information</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the main function of the frontal lobe?

    <p>Planning, cognitive control, and execution of movements</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the limbic lobe involved in?

    <p>Emotional processing, learning, and memory</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What principle reflects the anatomical organization of the body in the cortical representation of the body?

    <p>Topography principle</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the characteristic of association cortices?

    <p>Receives and integrates input from multiple sensory modalities</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary function of the region where the axon hillock is located?

    <p>To integrate synaptic input from other neurons and generate an action potential</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the consequence of decreased long-distance brain connectivity with increasing brain size?

    <p>Faster signaling over shorter distances</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the term for the type of organizational structure that combines many short fast local connections with a few long-distance ones?

    <p>Small-world architecture</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the result of the rapid opening and closing of voltage-gated ion channels in the spike-triggering zone?

    <p>A generation of an action potential</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which type of glial cell is responsible for forming myelin in the central nervous system?

    <p>Oligodendrocytes</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary advantage of minimizing connection lengths in the brain?

    <p>Faster signaling over shorter distances</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary function of the autonomic nervous system?

    <p>To regulate involuntary actions such as heart rate and digestion</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the consequence of not minimizing all connections in the brain?

    <p>Retaining some very long connections between distant sites</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary function of the peripheral nervous system?

    <p>To transmit information from the central nervous system to the periphery</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the benefit of the 'small-world architecture' in the brain?

    <p>Combining many short fast local connections with a few long-distance ones</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary function of short connections in the brain?

    <p>Processing localized information</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which type of ion channels is responsible for the rapid depolarization of the action potential?

    <p>Voltage-gated sodium channels</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the term for the difference in the concentration of ions across the neuronal membrane?

    <p>Ion gradient</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary function of the central nervous system?

    <p>To process and integrate information from sensory receptors and other neurons</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Study Notes

    The Cerebral Cortex

    • The human cerebral cortex covers an area of about 2,200 to 2,400 cm2 due to extensive folding.
    • The cerebral cortex is divided into distinct regions based on the underlying cytoarchitectonics by Brodmann.
    • The lobes of the brain include the frontal, parietal, temporal, and occipital lobes.
    • The frontal lobe is responsible for planning, cognitive control, and execution of movements.
    • The parietal lobe receives sensory input about touch, pain, temperature, and limb position, and is involved in coding space and coordinating actions.
    • The temporal lobe contains auditory, visual, and multi-modal processing areas.
    • The occipital lobe processes visual information.
    • The limbic lobe (not really a lobe) is involved in emotional processing, learning, and memory.

    Ion Channels and Action Potentials

    • Ion channels are formed by transmembrane proteins that create passageways through which ions can flow.
    • Ion channels can be either passive (always open) or gated (open only in the presence of electrical, chemical, or physical stimuli).
    • Passive current conduction is called electrotonic conduction or decremental conduction.
    • A depolarizing current makes the inside of the cell more positive and therefore more likely to generate an action potential.
    • Action potentials are an all-or-none phenomenon: The amplitude of the action potential does not depend on the size of the triggering depolarization, as long as that depolarization reaches threshold for initiating the action potential.
    • Voltage-gated channels are of prime importance in generating an action potential because they open and close according to the membrane potential.
    • Myelin allows for the rapid transmission of action potentials down an axon.
    • Nodes of Ranvier are the spaces between sheaths of myelin where voltage-gated Na+ and K+ channels are located and action potentials occur.

    Synaptic Transmission

    • Neurotransmitters are synthesized by and localized within the presynaptic neuron and stored in the presynaptic terminal before release.
    • Neurotransmitters are released by the presynaptic neuron when action potentials depolarize the terminal (mediated primarily by Ca2+).
    • The postsynaptic neuron contains receptors specific for the neurotransmitter.
    • Classes of neurotransmitters include amino acids, biogenic amines, and neuropeptides.
    • Neurotransmitters must be removed from the receptor after binding, which can be accomplished by active reuptake back into the presynaptic terminal, enzymatic breakdown of the transmitter in the synaptic cleft, or diffusion of the neurotransmitter away from the region of the synapse.

    The Structure of Neurons

    • Neurons and glial cells make up the nervous system.
    • Neurons are the cells that transmit information throughout the nervous system.
    • Most neurons consist of a cell soma (body), axon, and dendrites.
    • Neurons communicate with other neurons and cells at specialized structures called synapses, where chemical and electrical signals can be conveyed between neurons.

    The Role of Glial Cells

    • Astrocytes are a type of glial cell that helps form the blood-brain barrier.
    • Astrocytes have an active role in modulating neural activity.
    • Glial cells aid in the speed of information transfer by forming myelin around the axons of the neurons.
    • An oligodendrocyte is a type of glial cell that forms myelin in the central nervous system.
    • A Schwann cell is a type of glial cell that forms myelin in the peripheral nervous system.
    • As part of the immune response of the nervous system, microglial cells are phagocytic cells that engulf damaged cells.

    The Autonomic Nervous System

    • The autonomic nervous system is involved in controlling the action of smooth muscles, the heart, and various glands.
    • The sympathetic system uses the neurotransmitter norepinephrine and prepares the body for fight-or-flight responses by stimulating the adrenal glands.
    • The parasympathetic system uses acetylcholine as a neurotransmitter and is responsible for decreasing heart rate and stimulating digestion.

    Glial Cells

    • Astrocytes are a type of glial cell that helps form the blood-brain barrier and has an active role in modulating neural activity.
    • Glial cells aid in the speed of information transfer by forming myelin around the axons of neurons.
    • Oligodendrocytes are a type of glial cell that forms myelin in the central nervous system.
    • Schwann cells are a type of glial cell that forms myelin in the peripheral nervous system.
    • Microglial cells are phagocytic cells that engulf damaged cells as part of the immune response of the nervous system.

    Nervous System Structure

    Central Nervous System

    • The central nervous system consists of the brain and spinal cord.

    Peripheral Nervous System

    • The peripheral nervous system consists of all nerves and neurons outside of the central nervous system.

    Autonomic Nervous System

    • The autonomic nervous system is involved in controlling the action of smooth muscles, the heart, and various glands.
    • The sympathetic system uses the neurotransmitter norepinephrine and prepares the body for fight-or-flight responses by stimulating the adrenal glands.
    • The parasympathetic system uses acetylcholine as a neurotransmitter and is responsible for decreasing heart rate and stimulating digestion.

    Brain Regions

    Brainstem

    • The brainstem houses fibers that pass from the cortex to the spinal cord and cerebellum, and sensory fibers that run from spinal levels to the thalamus and then to the cortex.
    • The brainstem's neurons carry out many sensory and motor processes, including visuomotor, auditory, and vestibular functions as well as sensation and motor control of the face, mouth, throat, respiratory system, and heart.

    Cerebrum

    • The cerebrum is divided into two hemispheres, each containing a cerebral cortex, basal ganglia, limbic system, and diencephalon.

    Diencephalon

    • The thalamus is the relay station for almost all sensory information.
    • The hypothalamus is important for the autonomic nervous system and endocrine system, controlling functions necessary for the maintenance of homeostasis, and is involved in control of the pituitary gland.

    Cerebral Cortex

    • The cerebral cortex is a continuous sheet of layered neurons in each hemisphere.
    • The axons of cortical neurons and subcortical ganglia travel together in white matter tracts that interconnect neurons in different parts of the brain and spinal cord.

    Neuronal Signaling

    Neurons

    • Neurons are the cells that transmit information throughout the nervous system.
    • Most neurons consist of a cell soma (body), axon, and dendrites.
    • Neurons communicate with other neurons and cells at specialized structures called synapses, where chemical and electrical signals can be conveyed between neurons.

    Action Potential

    • The resting membrane potential is the difference in voltage across the neuronal membrane during rest.
    • The electrical gradient results from the asymmetrical distribution of ions across the membrane.
    • The action potential is mediated by increased Na+ conductance, which leads to rapid depolarization of the membrane potential.

    Synaptic Transmission

    • The presynaptic cell is located before the synapse with respect to information flow; the postsynaptic cell is located after the synapse with respect to information flow.
    • Nearly all neurons are both pre- and postsynaptic, since they both receive and transmit information.

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    Learn about the structure and functions of the cerebral cortex, limbic system, and basal ganglia in the human brain.

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