The Rise and Feminization of Clerical Work in the Early Twentieth Century

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What was the proportion of clerical workers in the US in 1870 and Canada in 1871?

Less than one percent

What was the percentage increase in clerical work in the US between 1900 and 1930?

Over 450 percent

Who primarily performed clerical work in the early twentieth century?

Men

What were clerical workers called by Lockwood?

'Black-coated workers' Signup and view all the answers

What were some tasks that clerical workers in the past did that are considered managerial today?

Handling all phases of an assignment Signup and view all the answers

Why did employers increasingly turn to hiring women for clerical work?

There were not enough qualified men, and women could be paid less Signup and view all the answers

What was one reason employers were initially reluctant to hire women for clerical work?

Fear of their 'distracting' influence in the workplace Signup and view all the answers

What were some nineteenth-century notions that influenced attitudes towards women working?

'Cult of true womanhood', 'proper' ladies should cultivate piety, purity, domesticity, and submissiveness Signup and view all the answers

Which technologies aided the expansion and re-organization of office work in the early twentieth century?

Typewriter, Hollerith machine, Dictaphone Signup and view all the answers

How did mechanization impact clerical work in the early twentieth century?

Fragmented into different jobs, tasks became routinized, required minimal staff training Signup and view all the answers

What were some of the major economic and urban changes taking place in the US and Canada around the turn of the 20th century?

National and international markets opened up, large corporations became more common and complex, central business districts emerged in cities with skyscrapers, department stores, and other commercial buildings. Signup and view all the answers

What was the purpose of the earliest skyscrapers built during this era?

The earliest skyscrapers were built for insurance companies and banks as a visible symbol of their power and importance. Signup and view all the answers

What industries experienced significant growth during this time period and relied heavily on clerical work?

The finance and insurance industries grew phenomenally and were heavily dependent on clerical work. Signup and view all the answers

What trend emerged regarding the composition of clerical workers during this period?

There was a rapid feminization of clerical work as the growth of office work coincided with an increase in women's labor force participation. Signup and view all the answers

What was the significance of the central business districts that emerged in cities during this time?

The central business districts became the heart of economic, political and cultural life not only of particular cities but also in the national imaginary. Signup and view all the answers

How did the construction of skyscrapers contribute to the changing urban landscape during this period?

Skyscrapers sprouted in the downtown cores of cities as part of the flurry of skyscraper construction that marked the era. Signup and view all the answers

How did the new class of clerical workers differ from the clerks of the previous century?

The new class of clerical workers had little in common with the clerks of the previous century, and the skill component of their work was immediately downgraded to typically 'female' abilities such as dexterity and ability to carry out repetitive tasks. Signup and view all the answers

How did the proportion of women in typing and stenography change between 1880 and 1910?

In 1880, only 4% of the 154 people in typing and stenography were women. Thirty years later, 77% of the 112,600 typists and stenographers listed in the U.S. Census were women. Signup and view all the answers

How did Remington's advertising for the typewriter reflect the demographics of clerical workers at the time?

Remington's ads featured a fictionalized 'Miss Remington' who was a young, white, unmarried woman in typical office attire, reflecting the actual demographic trends among clerical workers being more likely to be unmarried, white, and under 25 years old. Signup and view all the answers

What evidence is provided about the marital status of clerical workers compared to the general female workforce?

Census data indicates that in 1900, 96% of women clerical workers were unmarried, compared to 86% of all women workers. Even in 1930, 82% of clerical workers were single, compared to 72% of women workers generally. Signup and view all the answers

How did the age distribution of clerical workers compare to other female workers?

Clerical workers were much younger, with the female clerical workforce dominated by women aged less than 25 for decades. In 1900, 61% of clerical workers were under 25 compared to 50% of non-agricultural women workers. Signup and view all the answers

What were some of the discriminatory practices used to justify the transitory nature of clerical work for women?

Employers often required women to resign upon marriage and refused to hire married women. Claims of the 'inevitable' departure of women for their 'proper' station in life were used to justify lower pay, small pensions, short career ladders, and limited training for women in clerical roles. Signup and view all the answers

How did the promotion of clerical work as transitory for women serve to calm men's concerns?

Emphasizing clerical work as transitory work for women served to calm men's concerns about the potential downward pressure on wages as well as fears that women would be 'desexed' by paid work and abandon marriage altogether. Signup and view all the answers

What connection is made between clerical work and preparing women to be better wives and mothers?

It was not uncommon to find that office work was promoted (including in advice books aimed at young women) as preparing women to be better wives and mothers. Signup and view all the answers

What was the significance of the 'Miss Remington' character in the company's advertising?

The 'Miss Remington' character in the ads remained unmarried, white, and perpetually young, reflecting the demographic trends among actual clerical workers being more likely to be unmarried, white, and under 25 years old. Signup and view all the answers

How did the classification of clerical work as 'inferior' differ from the deskilling of men's jobs and the subsequent employment of women?

In this case, it was not that men's jobs were deskilled and women drawn into them, but that a new category of work was created which was classified as 'inferior' not simply by virtue of the skills required, but by virtue of the 'inferior' status of the women who came to perform it. Signup and view all the answers

How did clerical work symbolize a new form of urban womanhood in the early 20th century?

Clerical work symbolized sophisticated independent working girls who enjoyed relative freedom from parental oversight and worked in bustling downtown areas. Signup and view all the answers

Why did companies and women themselves consider clerical work respectable and dignified?

Clerical work was positioned as respectable by companies to attract middle-class women and by women themselves to differentiate from other types of waged work. Signup and view all the answers

How did clerical work contribute to social mobility for women in the early 20th century?

Clerical work allowed women from various family backgrounds to achieve social mobility by crossing the collar line. Signup and view all the answers

Why was clerical work an attractive option for women in the early 20th century, regardless of their family background?

Clerical work was desirable for women due to economic needs, even among those identified as middle-class. Signup and view all the answers

How were young women clerical workers portrayed in historical accounts, and what was the reality according to Sharon Hartman Strom?

Historically portrayed as passive and duped, young women clerical workers were actually making rational choices for their future by investing in commercial education and taking office jobs. Signup and view all the answers

What role did clerical workers' wages play in their families' budgets, especially among those from middle-class backgrounds?

Clerical workers' wages were more important to household budgets than employers recognized, especially for families aspiring to or considering themselves middle-class. Signup and view all the answers

What type of work was considered white-collar in the early twentieth century?

Clerical work Signup and view all the answers

What were the main types of jobs women from poorer families worked in during the late nineteenth century?

Factories, domestics, low-wage caregivers Signup and view all the answers

What type of work was desirable and 'appropriate' for young women from 'respectable' families in the early twentieth century?

Clerical work Signup and view all the answers

What percentage of fathers of women clerical workers held professional or white-collar occupations?

37% Signup and view all the answers

What was a critical aspect of the feminization of clerical work in the early twentieth century?

Women were drawn to such jobs, not merely relegated to them Signup and view all the answers

What were some advantages of clerical work for women in the early twentieth century?

Job security, better promotion opportunities, better pay, direct personal contact Signup and view all the answers

How did women entering clerical work view it compared to other available jobs at the time?

Desirable Signup and view all the answers

What types of working conditions were associated with clerical work in the early twentieth century?

Mental work, shorter hours, safe, clean environment Signup and view all the answers

What was a distinctive feature of clerical work compared to 'female professions' like social work?

Higher social status Signup and view all the answers

How did the working conditions in clerical work differ from domestic or factory work?

Mental rather than manual work, shorter hours, safer, cleaner environment Signup and view all the answers

What were the two key factors that shaped discourses about race and racism differently in the US compared to Canada?

<ol> <li>The more widespread legacy of slavery in the US. 2) Larger populations of African-Americans in the US compared to Afro-Caribbean Canadians.</li> </ol> Signup and view all the answers

What groups were racial and ethnic differences more likely to be cast between in early 20th century Canada?

Between white settler populations and Asian or First Nations populations, or between English-Protestant and French-speaking Catholic or Irish-Catholic populations. Signup and view all the answers

Why did clerical employers prefer hiring white, educated women workers beyond just their lower cost?

Employers knew that white, educated women constituted a unique labor force that could retain the class standing and education pedigree associated with male clerks, while also being paid lower wages. Signup and view all the answers

What factors made the potential supply of white, educated women substantial for clerical work?

Women were more likely than men to hold high school diplomas, and their range of employment opportunities was very limited by prevailing gender stereotypes and expectations. Signup and view all the answers

Besides teaching and nursing, what other new field did college-educated women join to claim professional status?

Social work Signup and view all the answers

What example is given of the discrimination faced by women of color in seeking clerical work?

The experience of Violet Blackman, who arrived in Toronto from the Caribbean in 1921 and recalled not being able to get office, factory or hospital work due to the color of her skin. Signup and view all the answers

What qualities beyond education made white middle-class women preferable clerical hires over educated working-class men?

The manners, bodily comportment, and values of white middle-class women made them preferable hires, as they likely possessed more social and cultural capital than educated working-class men. Signup and view all the answers

What criteria did employers use to assess the 'breeding' and respectability of potential female clerical hires?

Employment records and job ads show employers considered family background, associates/friends, behavior outside work hours, letters of recommendation about character/sexual purity, and convent/church affiliations. Signup and view all the answers

According to the Bank of Nova Scotia's employee handbook, what behavior was required of all officers outside the workplace?

"Unexceptionable conduct in private life" was required of all officers according to Rule 46. Signup and view all the answers

What does the passage argue that clerical work represented in this period?

Clerical work was exclusive and prestigious, but also exclusionary because only particular groups of women were hired for these roles. Signup and view all the answers

What was one reason given by employers for the high turnover rate of women clerical workers?

Employers claimed that women were unreliable and not worth training because they would soon 'retire' to marry. Signup and view all the answers

How does the author challenge the narrative that women left clerical jobs primarily to get married?

The author provides examples of women who left for better paying jobs or career advancement opportunities, not just to get married. Signup and view all the answers

What educational requirements made it difficult for working-class women and women of color to obtain clerical jobs initially?

Clerical workers needed to be literate, numerate, and often have high school or business college training, which excluded many from working-class and immigrant families due to lower education levels. Signup and view all the answers

When did sizable numbers of working-class women begin moving into clerical work, according to the passage?

In the 1910s and 1920s, when increased access to education and expansion of clerical work opened doors to a wider array of women. Signup and view all the answers

What additional barrier did women of color face in obtaining clerical jobs, beyond education requirements?

Bald-faced racism and exclusion from clerical jobs, which remained largely closed to women of color until after World War II. Signup and view all the answers

What percentage of women clerical workers in the US were women of color between 1890 and 1930, according to the text?

Less than one percent of women clerical workers were women of color until the 1940s. Signup and view all the answers

When did African-American women begin to gain more access to clerical jobs, according to the passage?

Largely excluded until the 1960s and the advent of the Civil Rights Movement. Signup and view all the answers

What types of organizations did employ African-American women in clerical roles prior to the 1960s?

African-American owned banks, insurance companies, real estate companies, and the civil service. Signup and view all the answers

According to the passage, what should the data and studies on clerical work be viewed in light of?

The different demographic profiles and public attitudes about race and ethnicity in each country. Signup and view all the answers

What does the author acknowledge about addressing racial and ethnic differences in clerical work across countries?

The author acknowledges they do not have space to address this subject in detail. Signup and view all the answers