The Respiratory System
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Questions and Answers

What are the two main parts of the nasal cavity?

  • Upper and lower respiratory tract
  • Respiratory and conducting part
  • Superior and inferior conchae
  • Internal nasal cavity and external vestibule (correct)

    • What is the function of the conducting part of the respiratory system?

  • Filtering out large particles from the air
  • Gas exchange between inspired air and blood
  • Cleaning and humidifying air (correct)
  • Producing sweat and oil

    • What is the epithelium in the vestibule that transitions to as you enter the nostrils?

  • Respiratory epithelium
  • Olfactory epithelium
  • Pseudostratified columnar epithelium (correct)
  • Keratinized stratified squamous epithelium

    • What is the main function of the respiratory part of the respiratory system?

    <p>Gas exchange between inspired air and blood</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What type of epithelium is found in the inferior and middle conchae?

    <p>Respiratory epithelium</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the function of the lamina propria?

    <p>Conditioning the air we breathe</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the function of the hair in the nostrils?

    <p>Filtering out large particles from the air</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the direction of the flow of blood in the lamina propria compared to the flow of air inhaled?

    <p>Opposite direction</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the purpose of the ciliated columnar epithelial cells in the respiratory tract?

    <p>To move cilia to help transport mucus and trapped particles out of the respiratory tract</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the function of the seromucous glands in the nasal cavity?

    <p>To humidify the air</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the function of the brush cells in the respiratory tract?

    <p>To detect chemical stimuli</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the function of the Kulchitsky cells in the respiratory tract?

    <p>To secrete hormones or other signaling molecules that help regulate various physiological processes</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the function of the basal cells in the respiratory tract?

    <p>To serve as stem cells, giving rise to the other types of epithelial cells</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the function of the olfactory epithelium in the nasal cavity?

    <p>To detect odorant molecules</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What type of epithelium is the olfactory epithelium composed of?

    <p>Pseudostratified columnar epithelium</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the function of the olfactory neurons in the olfactory epithelium?

    <p>To respond to odorant molecules by generating an action potential</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the function of the supporting cells in the olfactory epithelium?

    <p>To express many ion channels that help maintain an environment suitable for the function and survival of olfactory neurons</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the function of the basal cells in the olfactory epithelium?

    <p>To act as stem cells for olfactory neurons and supporting cells</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the function of the fluid surrounding the olfactory cilia?

    <p>To facilitate the detection of odorant molecules</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which sinuses are located between the eyes?

    <p>Ethmoid sinuses</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What type of epithelium is found in the pharynx?

    <p>Respiratory epithelium</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the function of the medial pharyngeal tonsil?

    <p>To detect and fight off germs and other harmful substances</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the function of the auditory tubes?

    <p>To equalize pressure between the ears and the outside environment</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the function of the epiglottis?

    <p>To prevent swallowed food or fluid from entering the airway</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What type of epithelium is found on the upper surface of the epiglottis?

    <p>Stratified squamous epithelium</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the function of the trachealis muscle?

    <p>To contract and narrow the tracheal lumen during coughing</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the function of the seromucous glands in the trachea?

    <p>To moisten the trachea</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the result of the trachealis muscle contracting during coughing?

    <p>The tracheal lumen narrows</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the name of the terminal branches of the smaller bronchi?

    <p>Bronchioles</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What type of cartilage is found in the smaller bronchi?

    <p>Hyalin cartilage plates</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is abundant in the smaller bronchi?

    <p>MALT</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What type of epithelium is found in the larger bronchioles?

    <p>Respiratory epithelium</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the function of the cilia in the mucociliary apparatus?

    <p>To push debris upwards</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the function of the club cells in the terminal bronchioles?

    <p>All of the above</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the name of the layer of the pleura that is directly attached to the surface of the lungs?

    <p>Visceral Pleura</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What type of cells are found in the visceral and parietal pleura?

    <p>Simple squamous mesothelial cells</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the name of the region where the visceral and parietal pleura are continuous?

    <p>Hilum</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the connection between the elastic fibers of the visceral pleura and the lung tissue?

    <p>They are continuous</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary function of the nasal cavity?

    <p>Conditioning the air we breathe</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the main difference between the inferior and middle conchae and the superior conchae?

    <p>The type of epithelium found in each</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the purpose of the lamina propria in the nasal cavity?

    <p>To provide a layer of connective tissue beneath the mucosal epithelium</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the relationship between the direction of blood flow in the lamina propria and the direction of airflow in the nasal cavity?

    <p>The blood flow is in the opposite direction of the airflow</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the name of the bony structure that separates the two nasal cavities?

    <p>Osseus nasal septum</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the main function of the respiratory part of the respiratory system?

    <p>To exchange O2 and CO2 between inspired air and blood</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the name of the epithelium found in the external vestibule of the nasal cavity?

    <p>Keratinized stratified squamous epithelium</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the purpose of the sweat glands in the nasal cavity?

    <p>To produce sweat to help humidify the air</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary function of the ciliated columnar epithelium in the respiratory tract?

    <p>To move mucus and trapped particles out of the respiratory tract</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the function of the immunoglobulin (IgA) in the mucus layer?

    <p>To help defend against infections</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the function of the Kulchitsky cells in the respiratory tract?

    <p>To regulate airway diameter and respond to environmental stimuli</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the function of the basal cells in the olfactory epithelium?

    <p>To act as stem cells for olfactory neurons and supporting cells</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the structure of the apical pole of the olfactory neuron?

    <p>A knoblike swelling with about a dozen basal bodies</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the function of the supporting cells in the olfactory epithelium?

    <p>To support the function and survival of olfactory neurons</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the location of the olfactory glands in the nasal cavity?

    <p>In the lamina propria of the olfactory epithelium</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the function of the basement membrane in the respiratory epithelium?

    <p>To provide a barrier between the epithelium and the underlying tissue</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the type of epithelium found in the olfactory epithelium?

    <p>Pseudostratified columnar epithelium</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the function of the axons of the olfactory neurons?

    <p>To transmit sensory information to the brain</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the shape of the pulmonary lobules?

    <p>Pyramid</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the main function of the paranasal sinuses?

    <p>To help in phonation of voice and lighten the skull weight</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What type of epithelium is found in the larynx?

    <p>Ciliated pseudostratified columnar epithelium</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the function of the secretory granules in club cells?

    <p>Secretion of surfactant lipoproteins and mucins</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the purpose of the mucociliary apparatus in the bronchioles?

    <p>To push debris and dirt upwards</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the function of the trachea?

    <p>To maintain an open airway and aid in sound production</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the purpose of the auditory tubes?

    <p>To equalize pressure between the ears and the outside environment</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the type of epithelium found in the terminal bronchioles?

    <p>Simple cuboidal epithelium</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the function of the medial pharyngeal tonsil?

    <p>To aid in the detection and fight of germs and other harmful substances</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the function of the smooth muscle in the lamina propria of the bronchioles?

    <p>To cause the mucosa to fold</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the type of cartilage found in the smaller bronchi?

    <p>Isolated plates of hyaline cartilage</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the purpose of the C-shaped rings in the trachea?

    <p>To provide structural support to the trachea</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the function of the bronchopulmonary segment?

    <p>To provide a separate unit of lung tissue with its own CT capsule and blood supply</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the function of the MALT in the smaller bronchi?

    <p>To help protect the respiratory tract from pathogens</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the function of the respiratory epithelium in the pharynx?

    <p>To produce mucus and facilitate the passage of air</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the name of the layer of the pleura that lines the internal wall of the thoracic cavity?

    <p>Parietal pleura</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the purpose of the smaller bronchi?

    <p>To branch into smaller bronchi and eventually form bronchioles</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the composition of the visceral and parietal pleura?

    <p>Simple squamous mesothelial cells</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Where are the visceral and parietal pleura continuous?

    <p>At the hilum</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary function of the nasal cavity in relation to the respiratory system?

    <p>To clean and humidify air</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the significance of the direction of blood flow in the lamina propria compared to the direction of airflow in the nasal cavity?

    <p>The blood flow is in the opposite direction of the airflow</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the name of the epithelium that lines the external vestibule of the nasal cavity?

    <p>Keratinized stratified squamous epithelium</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the function of the sebaceous glands in the nasal cavity?

    <p>To produce oil that helps to humidify the air</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the name of the bony structure that separates the two nasal cavities?

    <p>Osseus nasal septum</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the main difference between the inferior and middle conchae and the superior conchae?

    <p>The type of epithelium found in them</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the significance of the conchae in the nasal cavity?

    <p>They help to increase the surface area for gas exchange</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the function of the pseudostratified columnar epithelium in the nasal cavity?

    <p>To facilitate the exchange of heat and moisture between the air and blood</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the main function of the fluid surrounding the olfactory cilia?

    <p>To facilitate the access of new odorant molecules to the receptors</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which sinus is located in the center of the skull?

    <p>Sphenoid sinus</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the function of the lamina propria in the nasal cavity?

    <p>To support the respiratory epithelium</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the function of the medial pharyngeal tonsil?

    <p>To detect and fight off germs and other harmful substances</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the function of the trachealis muscle?

    <p>To relax during swallowing to allow the esophagus to bulge into the tracheal lumen</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the function of the auditory tubes?

    <p>To equalize pressure between the ears and the outside environment</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the epithelium found in the pharynx?

    <p>Respiratory epithelium</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the function of the Larynx?

    <p>To help in making sound by movement of its cartilages</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the type of cartilage found in the trachea?

    <p>Hyaline cartilage</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the function of the smaller bronchi?

    <p>To branch into segmental bronchi</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the main cell type found in the visceral and parietal pleura?

    <p>Simple squamous mesothelial cells</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the function of the elastic fibers in the lamina propria of respiratory bronchioles?

    <p>To cause the mucosa to fold</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary function of the seromucous glands in the nasal cavity?

    <p>To humidify the air and trap particles</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the main difference between bronchi and bronchioles?

    <p>Bronchi have mucous glands, while bronchioles do not</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the function of the club cells in the terminal bronchioles?

    <p>To secrete surfactant lipoproteins and mucins</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the function of the brush cells in the respiratory tract?

    <p>To detect chemical stimuli</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the name of the region where the visceral and parietal pleura are continuous?

    <p>Hilum</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the function of the Kulchitsky cells in the respiratory tract?

    <p>To secrete hormones or signaling molecules that help regulate physiological processes</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the function of the cilia in the mucociliary apparatus?

    <p>To push debris and dirt upwards</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the function of the olfactory neurons in the olfactory epithelium?

    <p>To detect chemical stimuli and respond to odorant molecules</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What type of cartilage is found in the smaller bronchi?

    <p>Isolated plates of hyalin cartilage</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the function of the supporting cells in the olfactory epithelium?

    <p>To express many ion channels that help maintain an environment suitable for the function and survival of olfactory neurons</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the function of the basal cells in the respiratory tract?

    <p>To serve as stem cells, giving rise to the other types of epithelial cells</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the main difference between the structure of the larger bronchi and the smaller bronchi?

    <p>Larger bronchi have cartilage rings, while smaller bronchi have isolated plates of hyalin cartilage</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the function of the smooth muscle in the lamina propria of respiratory bronchioles?

    <p>To cause the mucosa to fold</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the function of the olfactory glands in the olfactory epithelium?

    <p>To produce and secrete mucus</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the name of the layer of the pleura that lines the internal wall of the thoracic cavity?

    <p>Parietal pleura</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the function of the cilia on the olfactory neurons?

    <p>To provide a large surface area for chemoreceptors</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the function of the immunoglobulin (IgA) in the mucus layer?

    <p>To help defend against infections</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the function of the ciliated columnar epithelium in the respiratory tract?

    <p>To move mucus and trapped particles out of the respiratory tract</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary role of the urinary system?

    <p>To ensure optimal properties of blood</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the function of the kidneys in regulating the balance between water and electrolytes?

    <p>To adjust the volume of water being secreted to maintain fluid balance</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the name of the enzyme that helps in increasing blood pressure?

    <p>Renin</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the function of the kidneys in maintaining pH levels?

    <p>To excrete hydrogen ions and reabsorb bicarbonate from urine</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the role of the kidneys in vitamin D metabolism?

    <p>To convert vitamin D to its active form</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the function of the kidneys during periods of starvation or fasting?

    <p>To synthesize glucose from amino acids</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the location of the hilum in the kidneys?

    <p>Where the ureter and nerves enter</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the layer that covers the kidneys?

    <p>A thin fibrous layer</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the function of the renal arteries?

    <p>To transport oxygenated blood from the heart and aorta to the kidneys for filtration</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the role of the glomerulus in the renal corpuscle?

    <p>To filter waste and excess substances from the blood</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the function of the podocytes in the glomerular capsule?

    <p>To create the filtration apparatus of the kidney</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the function of the mesangial cells in the renal corpuscle?

    <p>To provide structural support to the glomerular capillaries</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the function of the proximal convoluted tubule?

    <p>To reabsorb essential substances and ions from the filtrate</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the role of the arcuate arteries in the kidney?

    <p>To branch into interlobular arteries</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the function of the renal veins?

    <p>To transport filtered deoxygenated blood from the kidneys to the heart</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the role of the visceral layer in the glomerular capsule?

    <p>To create the filtration apparatus of the kidney</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the function of the slit diaphragms in the glomerulus?

    <p>To regulate the passage of substances during filtration</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the function of the peritubular capillaries in the kidney?

    <p>To form a secondary capillary network for reabsorption and secretion</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the outer layer of the kidney composed of?

    <p>Fibroblasts and collagen fibers</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the function of the renal corpuscle?

    <p>To filter blood and form urine</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the function of the loop of Henle?

    <p>To concentrate the filtrate</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the function of the collecting duct?

    <p>To concentrate the urine</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the function of the Bowman's capsule?

    <p>To collect the filtrate</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the function of the nephron?

    <p>To filter blood and form urine</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the name of the space within the Bowman's capsule?

    <p>Bowman's space</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the function of the proximal convoluted tubule?

    <p>To reabsorb ions and water</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the function of the distal convoluted tubule?

    <p>To reabsorb ions and water</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the name of the final segment of the nephron that receives filtrate from multiple nephrons?

    <p>Collecting duct</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What type of epithelium is found in the mucosa of the ureters?

    <p>Transitional epithelium (urothelium)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary function of the distal convoluted tubule?

    <p>Regulated reabsorption</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the structure of the thick ascending limb of the loop of Henle?

    <p>Simple cuboidal epithelium with many mitochondria</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the function of the detrusor muscle in the urinary bladder?

    <p>To contract and expel urine</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the purpose of the umbrella cells in the transitional epithelium?

    <p>To protect underlying tissues from urine</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the function of the ureters?

    <p>To transport urine from the kidneys to the bladder</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the structure of the urinary bladder?

    <p>A hollow organ with a highly expandable wall</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the function of the urothelium in the urinary system?

    <p>To protect underlying tissues from urine</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the direction of urine flow in the ureters?

    <p>From the kidneys to the bladder</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the function of the external sphincter in the urethra?

    <p>To prevent backflow of urine into the kidneys</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Study Notes

    The Respiratory System

    • The respiratory system can be divided into two parts: the conducting part and the respiratory part.
    • The conducting part consists of the upper respiratory tract and lower respiratory tract, and is responsible for cleaning and humidifying air.
    • The respiratory part is responsible for gas exchange, where O2 and CO2 are exchanged between inspired air and blood.

    Upper Respiratory Tract

    • The upper respiratory tract consists of the nasal cavity, pharynx, and larynx.
    • The nasal cavity is divided into two main parts: the external vestibule and internal nasal cavity.
    • The external vestibule has sweat glands, sebaceous glands, and hairs that help filter out large particles from the air.
    • The internal nasal cavity has three conchae (inferior, middle, and superior) and is lined with respiratory epithelium.
    • The superior conchae have olfactory epithelium, which is responsible for smell.

    Nasal Cavity

    • The nasal cavity has a mucosa covering the conchae and nasal cavities, which has lamina propria.
    • The lamina propria contains blood vessels, immune cells, and nerves, and plays a crucial role in conditioning the air we breathe.
    • The blood vessels in the lamina propria help transfer heat from the blood to the air, warming it as we breathe in.
    • The seromucous glands and goblet cells produce a thin mucus layer that traps particles and gaseous impurities from the air.

    Respiratory Epithelium

    • The respiratory epithelium has a thick basement membrane and consists of five major cell types: ciliated columnar epithelium, goblet cells, brush cells, Kulchitsky cells, and basal cells.
    • Ciliated columnar epithelium helps move mucus and trapped particles out of the respiratory tract.
    • Goblet cells produce and secrete mucus.
    • Brush cells are chemosensory receptors that detect chemical stimuli and help transmit sensory information.
    • Kulchitsky cells secrete hormones or other signaling molecules that help regulate various physiological processes.
    • Basal cells serve as stem cells, giving rise to the other types of epithelial cells.

    Olfactory Epithelium

    • The olfactory epithelium is located at the roof of the nasal cavity and is responsible for smell.
    • It consists of pseudostratified columnar epithelium and has three main cell types: olfactory neurons, supporting cells, and basal cells.
    • Olfactory neurons have dendrites that respond to odorant molecules, generating an action potential.
    • Supporting cells express many ion channels that help maintain an environment suitable for the function and survival of olfactory neurons.
    • Basal cells act as stem cells for olfactory neurons and supporting cells.

    Paranasal Sinuses

    • The paranasal sinuses are skull cavities that open into the nasal cavities and help in phonation of voice and lighten the skull weight.
    • They are located within certain bones of the skull and are lined with a thinner respiratory epithelium.
    • The lamina propria only has a few glands, and the lamina continues with the peristomium.

    Pharynx

    • The pharynx is the upper part of the throat located behind the nose and is lined with respiratory epithelium.
    • The mucosa in the respiratory epithelium of the pharynx contains medial pharyngeal tonsil and two auditory tubes.
    • The medial pharyngeal tonsil is part of the immune system and helps detect and fight off germs and other harmful substances.
    • The auditory tubes are passages that connect the nasopharynx to the middle ear cavities and help equalize pressure between the ears and the outside environment.

    Larynx

    • The larynx is a short passageway between the pharynx and trachea and is lined with respiratory epithelium.
    • The epiglottis is a flat structure above the larynx that acts like a lid to prevent swallowed food or fluid from entering the airway.
    • The larynx maintains an open airway and helps in making sound by movement of its cartilages by skeletal muscle.

    Trachea

    • The trachea is lined by respiratory epithelium that contains seromucous glands that moisten the windpipe.
    • It is reinforced by a series of C-shaped rings made of hyaline cartilage.
    • The trachealis muscle relaxes during swallowing to allow the esophagus to bulge into the tracheal lumen, and contracts during the cough reflex to narrow the tracheal lumen and aid in the loosening of material in the air passage.

    Bronchial Tree

    • The bronchial tree is a system of tubes that branch off from the trachea and enter the lungs.
    • The primary bronchi divide into secondary bronchi, which supply a pulmonary lobe.
    • The segmental bronchi further divide into smaller bronchi, which enter a pulmonary lobule and form a bronchopulmonary segment.
    • Each bronchopulmonary segment has its own connective tissue capsule and blood supply.

    Bronchi

    • As the primary bronchi divide and become smaller, the structure of their wall changes.
    • The mucosa is similar to the trachea, but the cartilage rings are replaced by isolated plates of hyaline cartilage.
    • Serous and mucus glands are abundant and open into the bronchial lumen.
    • The lamina propria contains bundles of smooth muscle and elastic fibers arranged in spirals.

    Bronchioles

    • The bronchioles are smaller branches of the bronchial tree and do not have mucosal glands or cartilage.
    • The lining is respiratory epithelium, which changes to ciliated simple columnar epithelium or simple cuboidal epithelium in the terminal bronchioles.
    • The mucociliary apparatus pushes debris and dirt upwards.
    • The cuboidal epithelium of terminal branches contains club cells, which secrete surfactant lipoproteins and mucins, and have functions in detoxification, immune defense, and secretion of antimicrobial peptides and cytokines.

    Respiratory Bronchioles

    • The respiratory bronchioles are branches of terminal bronchioles that include alveoli for gas exchange.
    • The lining is similar to terminal bronchioles but with additional openings to alveoli.
    • The lamina propria contains elastic fibers and smooth muscle that causes the mucosa to fold when the smooth muscle contracts.

    Pleura

    • The pleura is a double-layered membrane that surrounds the lungs and lines the internal wall of the thoracic cavity.
    • The visceral pleura is directly attached to the surface of the lungs, and the parietal pleura lines the internal wall of the thoracic cavity.
    • Both layers are made of simple squamous mesothelial cells that sit on a thin connective tissue layer containing collagen and elastic fibers.

    The Respiratory System

    • The respiratory system can be divided into two parts: the conducting part and the respiratory part.
    • The conducting part consists of the upper respiratory tract and lower respiratory tract, and is responsible for cleaning and humidifying air.
    • The respiratory part is responsible for gas exchange, where O2 and CO2 are exchanged between inspired air and blood.

    Upper Respiratory Tract

    • The upper respiratory tract consists of the nasal cavity, pharynx, and larynx.
    • The nasal cavity is divided into two main parts: the external vestibule and internal nasal cavity.
    • The external vestibule has sweat glands, sebaceous glands, and hairs that help filter out large particles from the air.
    • The internal nasal cavity has three conchae (inferior, middle, and superior) and is lined with respiratory epithelium.
    • The superior conchae have olfactory epithelium, which is responsible for smell.

    Nasal Cavity

    • The nasal cavity has a mucosa covering the conchae and nasal cavities, which has lamina propria.
    • The lamina propria contains blood vessels, immune cells, and nerves, and plays a crucial role in conditioning the air we breathe.
    • The blood vessels in the lamina propria help transfer heat from the blood to the air, warming it as we breathe in.
    • The seromucous glands and goblet cells produce a thin mucus layer that traps particles and gaseous impurities from the air.

    Respiratory Epithelium

    • The respiratory epithelium has a thick basement membrane and consists of five major cell types: ciliated columnar epithelium, goblet cells, brush cells, Kulchitsky cells, and basal cells.
    • Ciliated columnar epithelium helps move mucus and trapped particles out of the respiratory tract.
    • Goblet cells produce and secrete mucus.
    • Brush cells are chemosensory receptors that detect chemical stimuli and help transmit sensory information.
    • Kulchitsky cells secrete hormones or other signaling molecules that help regulate various physiological processes.
    • Basal cells serve as stem cells, giving rise to the other types of epithelial cells.

    Olfactory Epithelium

    • The olfactory epithelium is located at the roof of the nasal cavity and is responsible for smell.
    • It consists of pseudostratified columnar epithelium and has three main cell types: olfactory neurons, supporting cells, and basal cells.
    • Olfactory neurons have dendrites that respond to odorant molecules, generating an action potential.
    • Supporting cells express many ion channels that help maintain an environment suitable for the function and survival of olfactory neurons.
    • Basal cells act as stem cells for olfactory neurons and supporting cells.

    Paranasal Sinuses

    • The paranasal sinuses are skull cavities that open into the nasal cavities and help in phonation of voice and lighten the skull weight.
    • They are located within certain bones of the skull and are lined with a thinner respiratory epithelium.
    • The lamina propria only has a few glands, and the lamina continues with the peristomium.

    Pharynx

    • The pharynx is the upper part of the throat located behind the nose and is lined with respiratory epithelium.
    • The mucosa in the respiratory epithelium of the pharynx contains medial pharyngeal tonsil and two auditory tubes.
    • The medial pharyngeal tonsil is part of the immune system and helps detect and fight off germs and other harmful substances.
    • The auditory tubes are passages that connect the nasopharynx to the middle ear cavities and help equalize pressure between the ears and the outside environment.

    Larynx

    • The larynx is a short passageway between the pharynx and trachea and is lined with respiratory epithelium.
    • The epiglottis is a flat structure above the larynx that acts like a lid to prevent swallowed food or fluid from entering the airway.
    • The larynx maintains an open airway and helps in making sound by movement of its cartilages by skeletal muscle.

    Trachea

    • The trachea is lined by respiratory epithelium that contains seromucous glands that moisten the windpipe.
    • It is reinforced by a series of C-shaped rings made of hyaline cartilage.
    • The trachealis muscle relaxes during swallowing to allow the esophagus to bulge into the tracheal lumen, and contracts during the cough reflex to narrow the tracheal lumen and aid in the loosening of material in the air passage.

    Bronchial Tree

    • The bronchial tree is a system of tubes that branch off from the trachea and enter the lungs.
    • The primary bronchi divide into secondary bronchi, which supply a pulmonary lobe.
    • The segmental bronchi further divide into smaller bronchi, which enter a pulmonary lobule and form a bronchopulmonary segment.
    • Each bronchopulmonary segment has its own connective tissue capsule and blood supply.

    Bronchi

    • As the primary bronchi divide and become smaller, the structure of their wall changes.
    • The mucosa is similar to the trachea, but the cartilage rings are replaced by isolated plates of hyaline cartilage.
    • Serous and mucus glands are abundant and open into the bronchial lumen.
    • The lamina propria contains bundles of smooth muscle and elastic fibers arranged in spirals.

    Bronchioles

    • The bronchioles are smaller branches of the bronchial tree and do not have mucosal glands or cartilage.
    • The lining is respiratory epithelium, which changes to ciliated simple columnar epithelium or simple cuboidal epithelium in the terminal bronchioles.
    • The mucociliary apparatus pushes debris and dirt upwards.
    • The cuboidal epithelium of terminal branches contains club cells, which secrete surfactant lipoproteins and mucins, and have functions in detoxification, immune defense, and secretion of antimicrobial peptides and cytokines.

    Respiratory Bronchioles

    • The respiratory bronchioles are branches of terminal bronchioles that include alveoli for gas exchange.
    • The lining is similar to terminal bronchioles but with additional openings to alveoli.
    • The lamina propria contains elastic fibers and smooth muscle that causes the mucosa to fold when the smooth muscle contracts.

    Pleura

    • The pleura is a double-layered membrane that surrounds the lungs and lines the internal wall of the thoracic cavity.
    • The visceral pleura is directly attached to the surface of the lungs, and the parietal pleura lines the internal wall of the thoracic cavity.
    • Both layers are made of simple squamous mesothelial cells that sit on a thin connective tissue layer containing collagen and elastic fibers.

    The Respiratory System

    • The respiratory system can be divided into two parts: the conducting part and the respiratory part.
    • The conducting part consists of the upper respiratory tract and lower respiratory tract, and is responsible for cleaning and humidifying air.
    • The respiratory part is responsible for gas exchange, where O2 and CO2 are exchanged between inspired air and blood.

    Upper Respiratory Tract

    • The upper respiratory tract consists of the nasal cavity, pharynx, and larynx.
    • The nasal cavity is divided into two main parts: the external vestibule and internal nasal cavity.
    • The external vestibule has sweat glands, sebaceous glands, and hairs that help filter out large particles from the air.
    • The internal nasal cavity has three conchae (inferior, middle, and superior) and is lined with respiratory epithelium.
    • The superior conchae have olfactory epithelium, which is responsible for smell.

    Nasal Cavity

    • The nasal cavity has a mucosa covering the conchae and nasal cavities, which has lamina propria.
    • The lamina propria contains blood vessels, immune cells, and nerves, and plays a crucial role in conditioning the air we breathe.
    • The blood vessels in the lamina propria help transfer heat from the blood to the air, warming it as we breathe in.
    • The seromucous glands and goblet cells produce a thin mucus layer that traps particles and gaseous impurities from the air.

    Respiratory Epithelium

    • The respiratory epithelium has a thick basement membrane and consists of five major cell types: ciliated columnar epithelium, goblet cells, brush cells, Kulchitsky cells, and basal cells.
    • Ciliated columnar epithelium helps move mucus and trapped particles out of the respiratory tract.
    • Goblet cells produce and secrete mucus.
    • Brush cells are chemosensory receptors that detect chemical stimuli and help transmit sensory information.
    • Kulchitsky cells secrete hormones or other signaling molecules that help regulate various physiological processes.
    • Basal cells serve as stem cells, giving rise to the other types of epithelial cells.

    Olfactory Epithelium

    • The olfactory epithelium is located at the roof of the nasal cavity and is responsible for smell.
    • It consists of pseudostratified columnar epithelium and has three main cell types: olfactory neurons, supporting cells, and basal cells.
    • Olfactory neurons have dendrites that respond to odorant molecules, generating an action potential.
    • Supporting cells express many ion channels that help maintain an environment suitable for the function and survival of olfactory neurons.
    • Basal cells act as stem cells for olfactory neurons and supporting cells.

    Paranasal Sinuses

    • The paranasal sinuses are skull cavities that open into the nasal cavities and help in phonation of voice and lighten the skull weight.
    • They are located within certain bones of the skull and are lined with a thinner respiratory epithelium.
    • The lamina propria only has a few glands, and the lamina continues with the peristomium.

    Pharynx

    • The pharynx is the upper part of the throat located behind the nose and is lined with respiratory epithelium.
    • The mucosa in the respiratory epithelium of the pharynx contains medial pharyngeal tonsil and two auditory tubes.
    • The medial pharyngeal tonsil is part of the immune system and helps detect and fight off germs and other harmful substances.
    • The auditory tubes are passages that connect the nasopharynx to the middle ear cavities and help equalize pressure between the ears and the outside environment.

    Larynx

    • The larynx is a short passageway between the pharynx and trachea and is lined with respiratory epithelium.
    • The epiglottis is a flat structure above the larynx that acts like a lid to prevent swallowed food or fluid from entering the airway.
    • The larynx maintains an open airway and helps in making sound by movement of its cartilages by skeletal muscle.

    Trachea

    • The trachea is lined by respiratory epithelium that contains seromucous glands that moisten the windpipe.
    • It is reinforced by a series of C-shaped rings made of hyaline cartilage.
    • The trachealis muscle relaxes during swallowing to allow the esophagus to bulge into the tracheal lumen, and contracts during the cough reflex to narrow the tracheal lumen and aid in the loosening of material in the air passage.

    Bronchial Tree

    • The bronchial tree is a system of tubes that branch off from the trachea and enter the lungs.
    • The primary bronchi divide into secondary bronchi, which supply a pulmonary lobe.
    • The segmental bronchi further divide into smaller bronchi, which enter a pulmonary lobule and form a bronchopulmonary segment.
    • Each bronchopulmonary segment has its own connective tissue capsule and blood supply.

    Bronchi

    • As the primary bronchi divide and become smaller, the structure of their wall changes.
    • The mucosa is similar to the trachea, but the cartilage rings are replaced by isolated plates of hyaline cartilage.
    • Serous and mucus glands are abundant and open into the bronchial lumen.
    • The lamina propria contains bundles of smooth muscle and elastic fibers arranged in spirals.

    Bronchioles

    • The bronchioles are smaller branches of the bronchial tree and do not have mucosal glands or cartilage.
    • The lining is respiratory epithelium, which changes to ciliated simple columnar epithelium or simple cuboidal epithelium in the terminal bronchioles.
    • The mucociliary apparatus pushes debris and dirt upwards.
    • The cuboidal epithelium of terminal branches contains club cells, which secrete surfactant lipoproteins and mucins, and have functions in detoxification, immune defense, and secretion of antimicrobial peptides and cytokines.

    Respiratory Bronchioles

    • The respiratory bronchioles are branches of terminal bronchioles that include alveoli for gas exchange.
    • The lining is similar to terminal bronchioles but with additional openings to alveoli.
    • The lamina propria contains elastic fibers and smooth muscle that causes the mucosa to fold when the smooth muscle contracts.

    Pleura

    • The pleura is a double-layered membrane that surrounds the lungs and lines the internal wall of the thoracic cavity.
    • The visceral pleura is directly attached to the surface of the lungs, and the parietal pleura lines the internal wall of the thoracic cavity.
    • Both layers are made of simple squamous mesothelial cells that sit on a thin connective tissue layer containing collagen and elastic fibers.

    The Urinary System

    • Consists of: 2 kidneys, 2 ureters, bladder, and urethra
    • Primary role: Ensure optimal blood properties, regulate water and electrolyte balance, and excrete metabolic wastes and bioactive substances

    Functions of the Urinary System

    • Regulate water and electrolyte balance
    • Excrete metabolic wastes, excess water, and electrolytes in urine
    • Excrete bioactive substances, including drugs
    • Secretion of renin, erythropoietin, and vitamin D
    • Maintain pH levels and regulate blood pressure

    Kidneys

    • Covered by a thin fibrous layer, with an outer layer of fibroblasts and collagen fibers, and an inner layer of myofibroblasts
    • Hilum: where nerves enter and ureter exits
    • Renal pelvis: divides into 2-3 major calyces, which then turn into minor calyces
    • Renal cortex: outer darker region containing renal corpuscles and tubules
    • Renal medulla: inner region consisting of aligned linear tubules and ducts
    • Renal pyramids: 8-15, with bases meeting at the cortex by the corticomedullary junction

    Nephron

    • Functional unit that filters blood and forms urine
    • Consists of a renal corpuscle and a long renal tubule
    • Renal corpuscle: glomerulus and Bowman's capsule
    • Glomerulus: a tuft of capillaries where blood filtration begins
    • Bowman's capsule: a double-walled capsule that surrounds the glomerulus and collects the filtrate

    Renal Tubule

    • Divided into several segments, each with specific functions in processing the filtrate
    • Proximal convoluted tubule (PCT): reabsorbs a majority of the filtrate, including water, ions, and nutrients
    • Loop of Henle: a U-shaped structure that extends into the medulla
    • Distal convoluted tubule (DCT): continues to reabsorb ions and water, under the influence of hormones
    • Collecting duct: the final segment that receives filtrate from multiple nephrons

    Nephron Functions

    • Filtration: occurs in the renal corpuscle, where blood pressure forces water and small solutes through the glomerular capillary walls
    • Tubular reabsorption: substances are transported from the tubular fluid back into the blood
    • Tubular secretion: substances are transported from the blood into the tubular fluid

    Blood Flow in the Kidneys

    • Renal arteries: transport oxygenated blood from the heart and aorta to the kidneys
    • Renal veins: transport filtered deoxygenated blood from the kidneys to the heart
    • Interlobular arteries: radiate from the arcuate arteries, extending deep into the cortex
    • Afferent arterioles: lead into the glomerulus, and efferent arterioles exit from the glomerulus

    Renal Corpuscle

    • Contains a tuft of capillaries called glomerulus, surrounded by a epithelial capsule called the glomerular capsule
    • Glomerular capsule: has a visceral layer and a parietal layer, with a capsular space between them
    • Podocytes: stellate epithelium that creates the filtration apparatus of the kidney
    • Slit pores: regulate the passage of substances during filtration

    Proximal Convoluted Tubule (PCT)

    • Cells are highly specialized for reabsorption and secretion
    • Structure: dense brush border, abundant mitochondria, and extensive membrane invaginations
    • Function: reabsorbs a majority of the filtrate, including water, ions, and nutrients

    Loop of Henle

    • Located in the medulla
    • Thin descending limb and thin ascending limb: simple squamous epithelium and organelles
    • Thick ascending limb: simple cuboidal epithelium and many mitochondria

    Distal Convoluted Tubule (DCT)

    • Lined with simple cuboidal cells that are smaller and flatter compared to the ones in the PCT
    • Function: performs regulated reabsorption while influenced by the hormone aldosterone

    Ureters

    • Muscular tubes that transport urine from the renal pelvis to the urinary bladder
    • Structure: mucosa, muscularis, and adventitia
    • Function: move urine towards the bladder via peristaltic contractions and prevent backflow into the kidneys

    Urinary Bladder

    • Structure: mucosa, muscularis, and adventitia
    • Function: stores urine and expels it during micturition

    Urothelium (Transitional Epithelium)

    • Found in the renal pelvis, ureters, bladder, and parts of the urethra
    • Structure: basal cells, intermediate cells, and umbrella cells
    • Function: protects underlying tissues from the toxic effects of urine and allows the bladder to stretch and contract

    Urethra

    • Structure: varies in males and females, but includes a prostatic urethra, membranous urethra, and spongy urethra
    • Function: conducts urine from the bladder to the exterior, and in males, serves as a conduit for semen during ejaculation

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    Learn about the two parts of the respiratory system, including the conducting and respiratory parts, and their components.

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