The Reformation Overview

A 16th-century religious movement that challenged the authority of the Roman Catholic Church and led to the creation of Protestant churches.

A Catholic monk who sparked the Protestant Reformation by criticizing the Church's practices and posting his 95 Theses.

An Oxford professor who criticized the Church's wealth and advocated for the Bible as the ultimate authority.

The selling of indulgences, the Pope's vast power, corruption within the Catholic Church, and King Henry VIII's desire for a divorce all played a role in the Reformation.

The Counter Reformation was a response to the Protestant Reformation, seeking to solidify the Catholic Church's authority and combat Protestant ideas.

A group of Catholic missionaries founded by Ignatius of Loyola, dedicated to spreading the Catholic faith.

A group of Protestants within the Church of England who sought a stricter form of worship, believing in predestination and rejecting any Catholic influence.

A theological system based on the teachings of John Calvin, emphasizing predestination (God's predetermined choice of who will be saved) and a strict moral code.

A period of great cultural and artistic flourishing in Italy, characterized by a renewed interest in classical learning and art.

Powerful banking families who played a significant role in the political and economic life of Renaissance Italy. They supported the arts and helped finance lavish projects.

An unsuccessful plot to overthrow the Medici rulers of Florence, named after the Pazzi family who led the conspiracy.

A Dominican friar and preacher who led a reform movement in Florence. He criticized the excesses and corruption of the Church, and he spoke against the Pope.

The offspring of Portuguese men and Amerindian women in Brazil during the colonial period.

A raw material or primary agricultural product that can be bought and sold.

The forced transportation of millions of Africans across the Atlantic Ocean to be enslaved in the Americas.

A Catholic priest who advocated for better treatment of Native Americans and fought against the system that forced them into forced labor.

A dynasty of shoguns who ruled a unified Japan from the 1600s to the late 1800s. They established a strict social hierarchy and a policy of national isolation.

Japan's self-imposed isolation from the outside world that lasted for two centuries.

A Japanese polytheistic religion that emphasizes love and respect for nature. Believers worship many gods, or kami, associated with natural phenomena.

A European intellectual movement that emphasized reason, logic, and individual liberty. It challenged traditional authorities and paved the way for political and social reforms.

A French philosopher & writer known for his ideas on tolerance, reason, and free speech. He criticized the French monarchy in his book 'Candide'.

A period of rapid scientific discovery and advancement, characterized by new ways of thinking about the natural world based on observation and experimentation.

People who believe in a God who created the universe and established natural laws but do not believe in miracles or divine intervention.

The storming of the Bastille, a royal prison and armory, marked the start of the French Revolution. It symbolized the common people's defiance against the monarchy and their desire for change.

The National Convention was a political body that emerged during the French Revolution. It abolished the monarchy, replaced it with a republic, and established the Committee of Public Safety, responsible for executing those deemed enemies of the revolution.

The Jacobins were a radical political group during the French Revolution. They gained control after the execution of King Louis XVI. They established the Committee of Public Safety and oversaw the Reign of Terror, a period of intense violence and purging of counter-revolutionaries.

The Committee of Public Safety was a powerful body created by the National Convention during the Reign of Terror. Its task was to ensure the survival of the revolution by identifying and eliminating counter-revolutionaries, often through the use of executions.

The Guillotine was a beheading machine used extensively during the Reign of Terror in France. It was intended to be a more humane method of execution compared to previous means.

Robespierre was a prominent leader of the Jacobins and a driving force behind the Reign of Terror. He was a radical revolutionary who believed in using harsh measures to secure the revolution's goals.

The Napoleonic Code was a legal system implemented by Napoleon Bonaparte after his rise to power. It established principles such as equality under the law, religious tolerance, and the abolition of feudalism, drawing on the ideals of the French Revolution.

The Continental System was a policy implemented by Napoleon Bonaparte to weaken Great Britain by barring European trade with them. It aimed to cripple British commerce and force them to negotiate peace but ultimately failed due to its inability to fully isolate Britain and the emergence of alternative trade routes.

The Congress of Vienna was a meeting of European diplomats in 1814-1815 to redraw the political map of Europe after the Napoleonic Wars. It aimed to restore stability and order by re-establishing traditional power structures and borders.

The Seven Years' War significantly burdened France's finances, leading to increased taxation and financial troubles. The war also eroded the power of parliament and prompted attempts at reform, ultimately failing to address the underlying issues.

The Encyclopedia was a collection of knowledge and ideas compiled by Enlightenment thinkers during the 18th century. It covered a wide range of subjects and challenged traditional ideas, promoting new perspectives on science, religion, politics, and society.

King Louis XVI's inability to address France's financial and social problems, his extravagance, and his attempts to restrict freedoms all played a role in escalating the French Revolution. His indecisiveness and poor leadership fueled public discontent.

After the execution of King Louis XVI, France faced ongoing challenges that led to the Reign of Terror. These challenges included the need for more resources for the war effort, and concerns about counter-revolutionaries, creating a climate of fear and suspicion. The National Convention, in response, established a more authoritarian system to manage these problems.

The Revolutionary Tribunal was a court established during the Reign of Terror to try and execute those accused of treason and rebellion.

The French Revolution had significant impacts on the French colonies in the Americas. The revolution's ideals of liberty and equality challenged existing power structures and fueled revolts against colonial rule. Ultimately, the French lost control of several colonies, including Haiti, which became a free and independent state after a successful slave rebellion.

The Industrial Revolution was a period of rapid technological advancement in the late 18th and early 19th centuries. It involved the development of new machines and industrial processes, particularly using steam engines and mass production, leading to significant changes in societies and economies.

The Industrial Revolution emerged from the Agricultural Revolution, which had created more stable and productive food supplies. This allowed for a more abundant food supply and a growing population, leading to investments in infrastructure and new technologies, further driving the industrial revolution.

Martin Luther's 95 Theses were a list of arguments against the Catholic Church's practices, particularly indulgences. Posted in 1517, they sparked the Protestant Reformation.

The Diet of Worms was an assembly called by Holy Roman Emperor Charles V in 1521, where Martin Luther was summoned to recant his criticisms of the Catholic Church. He refused, leading to his excommunication.

Following the Protestant Reformation, new branches of Christianity emerged, including Calvinism (emphasizing predestination), Anglicanism (established by Henry VIII in England), Anabaptism (baptism of adults), and Quakerism (belief in inner light and equality).

European expansion in the 14th and 15th centuries was motivated by a complex mix of factors, including the desire to spread Christianity, overpopulation and conflict in Europe, the search for new trade routes and spices, colonization, and the need for gold and silver.

European colonizers came from various social backgrounds, but mostly from the poorer classes. They were attracted by the promise of land, opportunities for advancement, and escape from war and religious persecution. Some were missionaries, adventurers, and nobles.

European colonizers believed that converting native populations to Christianity would justify their conquest and expansion, allowing them to claim divine right.

Mansa Musa, the king of Mali, was renowned for his wealth, accumulated from abundant gold mines. His pilgrimage to Mecca in 1324 spread an immense amount of gold, causing significant inflation in the regions he passed.

The Fall of Grenada (1492) marked the end of Muslim rule in Spain. After centuries of conflict, the Spanish Christian forces conquered the last Muslim kingdom, forcing the Muslim population to convert to Christianity or leave.

Christopher Columbus, sponsored by Spain, embarked on his voyages of exploration in the late 15th century. He landed in the Caribbean, initiating the colonization and enslavement of Native peoples. His expeditions brought devastating diseases that decimated the indigenous population.

The fall of the Mongol Empire in the 13th and 14th centuries disrupted trade routes, particularly the spice route to Asia. This prompted European exploration of alternative sea routes in search of Asian goods.

The Columbian Exchange was a cultural and biological exchange between the Old World (Europe, Asia, Africa) and the New World (Americas) following Columbus' voyages. It included the transfer of plants, animals, diseases, and ideas, with significant consequences for both worlds.

The Feudal System was a social hierarchy prevalent in medieval Europe. At the top were the Church and the king, followed by nobles, merchants, lords, freemen (peasants), and serfs (tied to the land).

The arrival of Europeans in the New World had profound effects on Native Americans, including the imposition of European economic and cultural systems, the spread of deadly diseases that decimated indigenous populations, and forced labor as slaves.

The Encomienda System was a labor system established by the Spanish in the Americas. It granted Spanish conquistadors control over Native American labor and resources, leading to exploitation and abuse.

The Aztecs, a powerful Native American empire centered in present-day Mexico, controlled a vast territory before being conquered by Spanish forces. Their capital, Tenochtitlan, was a thriving city with a complex social and political organization.

The Inca Empire, centered in what is now Peru, was a large and sophisticated civilization with a well-developed agriculture, infrastructure, and social organization. They were conquered by the Spanish conquistador Francisco Pizarro.

The Aztecs had a complex social structure with a hierarchy, where peasants lived on the outskirts and elite members resided in the inner city. They practiced a system of tributes, involving human sacrifices and animal offerings to appease their gods. Transportation relied heavily on water routes, causeways (bridges), and canoes.

Hernán Cortés was one of the earliest Spanish conquistadors who led the conquest of the Aztec Empire. He landed in Mexico (Tenochtitlan) in 1519 and, through strategic alliances and military force, eventually overthrew the Aztecs.

Moctezuma II was the Aztec emperor who initially welcomed the Spanish conquistadors, believing them to be gods. However, his hospitality backfired as Cortes eventually manipulated him and seized control.

The fall of the Aztec Empire was a result of Cortes's cunning strategies, his alliances with rival tribes, and the introduction of European diseases that decimated the Aztec population. The Aztecs, after initially driving out the Spanish, were ultimately defeated, and their city of Tenochtitlan was destroyed.

The Inca society was known for its impressive architecture and engineering. They built Machu Picchu, a renowned city, and constructed extensive road networks. Their leader, Atahualpa, was captured and executed by Francisco Pizarro.

Pre-colonial Africa was a continent characterized by its vast diversity of languages, cultures, and religions. Christianity, Islam, and traditional African beliefs like animism and shamanism co-existed. Economies ranged from urban centers to agricultural societies, hunters and gatherers, mining, and trade.

The Songhai Empire, a powerful West African empire, controlled major trade cities like Timbuktu, a center of learning and knowledge. They ruled over vast gold and salt mines, and controlled vital river routes. The empire was eventually conquered by Morocco in the late 16th century.

The Ethiopian Empire developed its own unique variant of Christianity, isolated from the rest of the Christian world. They engaged in frequent conflicts with neighboring empires, but despite these challenges, they maintained their independence, established well-developed cities and agriculture, and resisted European imperialism.

The Mughal Empire, a Muslim empire that dominated much of India, was known for its rich artistic and cultural legacy. It was once one of the largest economic and military powers in the world, supporting a diverse society, including Hindus and Muslims. While sometimes promoting freedom of religion, it also saw periods of oppression of Hindus. In the 1700s, it became a puppet state under British control.

The Ottoman Empire, ruled by a Turkish Muslim tribe, was a formidable empire that rose to prominence by conquering the Byzantine Empire. It controlled key trade routes around the eastern Mediterranean Sea, wielding significant political and economic power.

The Ming Dynasty, a powerful East Asian empire, provided stability and prosperity for China. They are best known for sending Zheng He on his influential voyages of exploration. While early expeditions were successful, the policy was later reversed, leading to the Ming's eventual decline and replacement by the Qing Dynasty.

Zheng He was a renowned Chinese admiral and navigator, known for his extensive voyages in the 15th century. He led expeditions across the Indian Ocean, reaching Africa, India, and the Middle East, showcasing China's maritime prowess.

Early modern India was a melting pot of diverse religions and cultures. Hinduism, Jainism, Sikhism, and Buddhism emerged from India. Islam arrived during the middle ages, and the Sultanate of Delhi emerged as a major political force.

A puppet state is a country that appears independent but is actually controlled by a more powerful neighboring country. The puppet state's leaders are often manipulated by the controlling power, making them dependent on them for support and survival.

Buddhism, a religion founded on the teachings of the Buddha, emphasizes the pursuit of enlightenment (Nirvana) through spiritual practices like meditation and mindfulness. Buddhists memorize and study the Buddha's teachings to reach a state of liberation.