Podcast
Questions and Answers
Which of the following cell types are part of nervous tissue?
Which of the following cell types are part of nervous tissue?
- Erythrocytes
- Osteocytes
- Neurons (correct)
- Chondrocytes
What type of neuron has one axon and one dendrite?
What type of neuron has one axon and one dendrite?
- Multipolar
- Unipolar
- Pseudounipolar
- Bipolar (correct)
Which glial cells are responsible for myelination in the central nervous system?
Which glial cells are responsible for myelination in the central nervous system?
- Microglial cells
- Ependymal cells
- Astrocytes
- Oligodendrocytes (correct)
What is the main function of astrocytes?
What is the main function of astrocytes?
Which type of cell lines the ventricles of the brain and helps to create cerebrospinal fluid?
Which type of cell lines the ventricles of the brain and helps to create cerebrospinal fluid?
What glial cells act as the primary immune cells of the CNS?
What glial cells act as the primary immune cells of the CNS?
Gaps in the myelin sheath along an axon are called what?
Gaps in the myelin sheath along an axon are called what?
Which structure is responsible for connecting the cell body to the axon?
Which structure is responsible for connecting the cell body to the axon?
What are the main components of the peripheral nervous system?
What are the main components of the peripheral nervous system?
What is the name of the connective tissue layer that surrounds an entire nerve?
What is the name of the connective tissue layer that surrounds an entire nerve?
Which nervous system controls involuntary functions like heart rate and digestion?
Which nervous system controls involuntary functions like heart rate and digestion?
Which of the following is a division of the autonomic nervous system?
Which of the following is a division of the autonomic nervous system?
What term refers to the cell body of a neuron?
What term refers to the cell body of a neuron?
What is the name for the numerous extensions of a neuron that receive signals?
What is the name for the numerous extensions of a neuron that receive signals?
Nissl bodies are best described as which of the following?
Nissl bodies are best described as which of the following?
A neuron typically has how many axons?
A neuron typically has how many axons?
The 'cytosol' of a neuron refers to which of the following?
The 'cytosol' of a neuron refers to which of the following?
Which structure is considered a major site of protein synthesis in the neuron?
Which structure is considered a major site of protein synthesis in the neuron?
What accounts for the basophilic staining properties of Nissl bodies?
What accounts for the basophilic staining properties of Nissl bodies?
Which of the following best describes the function of the Golgi apparatus?
Which of the following best describes the function of the Golgi apparatus?
What is the function of the neuronal membrane?
What is the function of the neuronal membrane?
What is the main function of dendrites?
What is the main function of dendrites?
Where are polyribosomes often observed clearly in neurons?
Where are polyribosomes often observed clearly in neurons?
What is the main purpose of the axon?
What is the main purpose of the axon?
What is the range of the axon diameter in humans?
What is the range of the axon diameter in humans?
Axons often branch into what structures?
Axons often branch into what structures?
The cytoskeleton of a neuron is composed of what?
The cytoskeleton of a neuron is composed of what?
What is the function of neurofilaments?
What is the function of neurofilaments?
Which structures are involved in the transport of materials throughout the cell?
Which structures are involved in the transport of materials throughout the cell?
Which of the following is a function of actin filaments?
Which of the following is a function of actin filaments?
Which proteins are responsible for vesicle transport along microtubules?
Which proteins are responsible for vesicle transport along microtubules?
Proteins are transported from the soma to the axon terminal by what process?
Proteins are transported from the soma to the axon terminal by what process?
Wallerian degeneration refers to the degradation of what part of the neuron?
Wallerian degeneration refers to the degradation of what part of the neuron?
How can anterograde axoplasmic transport be best described?
How can anterograde axoplasmic transport be best described?
At a synapse, electrical impulses are typically converted into what type of signal?
At a synapse, electrical impulses are typically converted into what type of signal?
What are the small bubbles of membrane that contain neurotransmitters called?
What are the small bubbles of membrane that contain neurotransmitters called?
What is the name for the space between the presynaptic and postsynaptic membranes?
What is the name for the space between the presynaptic and postsynaptic membranes?
Neurotransmitters are stored in vesicles within what part of the neuron?
Neurotransmitters are stored in vesicles within what part of the neuron?
Electrical synapses contain what type of junctions?
Electrical synapses contain what type of junctions?
Which structure is unique to neurons and specialized for transmitting information?
Which structure is unique to neurons and specialized for transmitting information?
What is the main component of Nissl bodies?
What is the main component of Nissl bodies?
What accounts for the basophilic staining properties of Nissl substance?
What accounts for the basophilic staining properties of Nissl substance?
What is a primary function of the Golgi apparatus in neurons?
What is a primary function of the Golgi apparatus in neurons?
What is the term for branches that occasionally arise from axons?
What is the term for branches that occasionally arise from axons?
What cells are capable of electrical signaling in nervous tissue?
What cells are capable of electrical signaling in nervous tissue?
What is the Greek etymology of the term 'glia'?
What is the Greek etymology of the term 'glia'?
From which embryonic structure do CNS glial cells originate?
From which embryonic structure do CNS glial cells originate?
Which of these glial cell types is ONLY derived from the mesoderm?
Which of these glial cell types is ONLY derived from the mesoderm?
Which glial cells surround the cell bodies of neurons in PNS ganglia?
Which glial cells surround the cell bodies of neurons in PNS ganglia?
Which glial cells are involved in the repair of PNS axons after injury?
Which glial cells are involved in the repair of PNS axons after injury?
What type of glial cell helps regulate ion, nutrient and gas concentrations in the CNS?
What type of glial cell helps regulate ion, nutrient and gas concentrations in the CNS?
Which of the following is a key function of microglia?
Which of the following is a key function of microglia?
What feature is characteristic of astrocytes when viewed in H&E staining?
What feature is characteristic of astrocytes when viewed in H&E staining?
Which structural feature is present in fibrous astrocytes, located in the CNS white matter?
Which structural feature is present in fibrous astrocytes, located in the CNS white matter?
What glial filament is highly abundant in astrocytes?
What glial filament is highly abundant in astrocytes?
What is the shape of astrocyte nuclei?
What is the shape of astrocyte nuclei?
What type of junctions do astrocytes form?
What type of junctions do astrocytes form?
What is the function of astrocytes in response to brain injury?
What is the function of astrocytes in response to brain injury?
What role do astrocytes play in synaptic activity?
What role do astrocytes play in synaptic activity?
How do astrocytes contribute to ionic homeostasis in the extracellular fluid?
How do astrocytes contribute to ionic homeostasis in the extracellular fluid?
How do astrocytes help maintain constant pH levels in the cerebrospinal fluid (CSF)?
How do astrocytes help maintain constant pH levels in the cerebrospinal fluid (CSF)?
What is the role of radial glial cells during brain development?
What is the role of radial glial cells during brain development?
What role do radial glial cells play in neuron migration?
What role do radial glial cells play in neuron migration?
What type of cells form the blood-brain barrier (BBB)?
What type of cells form the blood-brain barrier (BBB)?
What type of junctions exist between endothelial cells comprising the BBB?
What type of junctions exist between endothelial cells comprising the BBB?
What is one of the key functions performed by the BBB?
What is one of the key functions performed by the BBB?
What specialized structures cover the apical membrane of choroidal ependymal cells?
What specialized structures cover the apical membrane of choroidal ependymal cells?
What is the main function of the choroid plexus?
What is the main function of the choroid plexus?
What structure does the spinal cord connect to rostrally?
What structure does the spinal cord connect to rostrally?
Approximately how many pairs of spinal nerves are there?
Approximately how many pairs of spinal nerves are there?
What type of axons are carried by the dorsal roots?
What type of axons are carried by the dorsal roots?
Where are cell bodies of dorsal root axons located?
Where are cell bodies of dorsal root axons located?
At what level does the spinal cord typically end in adults?
At what level does the spinal cord typically end in adults?
What is the collection of lumbar and sacral spinal nerves called?
What is the collection of lumbar and sacral spinal nerves called?
Through what openings do spinal nerves leave the vertebral canal?
Through what openings do spinal nerves leave the vertebral canal?
The central core of the spinal cord is primarily made up of what?
The central core of the spinal cord is primarily made up of what?
What structure is found in the centre of the spinal cord?
What structure is found in the centre of the spinal cord?
What distinct shape does the central core have?
What distinct shape does the central core have?
What kind of neurons are contained in the anterior horn?
What kind of neurons are contained in the anterior horn?
The posterior horn is the site of termination for many ______.
The posterior horn is the site of termination for many ______.
At what levels only is the lateral horn found?
At what levels only is the lateral horn found?
Which division of the autonomic nervous system do the neurons in the lateral horn belong to?
Which division of the autonomic nervous system do the neurons in the lateral horn belong to?
What type of matter contains longitudinal nerve fibers?
What type of matter contains longitudinal nerve fibers?
Ascending tracts carry information to what part of the body?
Ascending tracts carry information to what part of the body?
Which ascending tracts carry fine touch and proprioception?
Which ascending tracts carry fine touch and proprioception?
Which ascending tracts carry pain, temperature, coarse touch and pressure?
Which ascending tracts carry pain, temperature, coarse touch and pressure?
Which of the following controls skilled voluntary movements?
Which of the following controls skilled voluntary movements?
What structures make up the brainstem?
What structures make up the brainstem?
What vital functions are controlled by centers in the brainstem?
What vital functions are controlled by centers in the brainstem?
The medulla oblongata is located in what position relative to the spinal cord?
The medulla oblongata is located in what position relative to the spinal cord?
What is located on the ventral part of the pons?
What is located on the ventral part of the pons?
What does the medulla and pons border on their dorsal sides?
What does the medulla and pons border on their dorsal sides?
What is anterior to the cerebral aqueduct?
What is anterior to the cerebral aqueduct?
How many pairs of cranial nerves exist?
How many pairs of cranial nerves exist?
Which cranial nerves attach directly to the forebrain?
Which cranial nerves attach directly to the forebrain?
Which of the following best describes the location of the cerebellum?
Which of the following best describes the location of the cerebellum?
What is the tentorium cerebelli?
What is the tentorium cerebelli?
What parts is the cerebellum split nominally into?
What parts is the cerebellum split nominally into?
What is the outer layer of the cerebellum made up of?
What is the outer layer of the cerebellum made up of?
What is the name for a convolution of the cerebellum?
What is the name for a convolution of the cerebellum?
What is the cerebellum concerned with?
What is the cerebellum concerned with?
Rostral (anterior) to the pons, is the relatively small
Rostral (anterior) to the pons, is the relatively small
What makes up the forebrain?
What makes up the forebrain?
What area are the epithalamus, thalamus, subthalamus and hypothalamus found in?
What area are the epithalamus, thalamus, subthalamus and hypothalamus found in?
From a ventral view of the hypothalamus in the midline, what structure arises?
From a ventral view of the hypothalamus in the midline, what structure arises?
What does the lateral fissure divide the hemisphere into?
What does the lateral fissure divide the hemisphere into?
What are the names of the convolutions and furrows in the cerebral cortex?
What are the names of the convolutions and furrows in the cerebral cortex?
What does the precentral gyrus contain?
What does the precentral gyrus contain?
What senses exist at the highest level of representation in other areas, excluding the occipital lobe?
What senses exist at the highest level of representation in other areas, excluding the occipital lobe?
What kind of structure is a limb lobe?
What kind of structure is a limb lobe?
The embryonic central canal of the spinal cord shrinks to give rise to what structure?
The embryonic central canal of the spinal cord shrinks to give rise to what structure?
What covers the ependymal cells?
What covers the ependymal cells?
The ventricles are lined by what?
The ventricles are lined by what?
In terms of direction, does it move progressively in a dorsal direction or ventral direction?
In terms of direction, does it move progressively in a dorsal direction or ventral direction?
How is the ventricular system connected?
How is the ventricular system connected?
The lateral walls of the third ventricle are formed by which specific structres?
The lateral walls of the third ventricle are formed by which specific structres?
What fluid does the ventricular system contain?
What fluid does the ventricular system contain?
What cells secrete the cerebrospinal fluid?
What cells secrete the cerebrospinal fluid?
What structure helps control CSF pressure?
What structure helps control CSF pressure?
What structure is the spinal cord continuous with rostrally?
What structure is the spinal cord continuous with rostrally?
How many pairs of spinal nerves are attached to the spinal cord?
How many pairs of spinal nerves are attached to the spinal cord?
What is the approximate length of the spinal cord?
What is the approximate length of the spinal cord?
What is the name for the collection of lumbar and sacral spinal nerve roots that extend inferiorly from the conus medullaris?
What is the name for the collection of lumbar and sacral spinal nerve roots that extend inferiorly from the conus medullaris?
Through what structures do spinal nerves exit the vertebral canal?
Through what structures do spinal nerves exit the vertebral canal?
What is the approximate diameter of the spinal cord?
What is the approximate diameter of the spinal cord?
What divides the spinal cord into dorsal and ventral regions?
What divides the spinal cord into dorsal and ventral regions?
Which of the following contains sensory neuron?
Which of the following contains sensory neuron?
Where do efferent axons originate?
Where do efferent axons originate?
At which vertebral level does the spinal cord typically end in adults?
At which vertebral level does the spinal cord typically end in adults?
Which cranial nerve is associated with olfaction?
Which cranial nerve is associated with olfaction?
Which cranial nerves are associated with taste?
Which cranial nerves are associated with taste?
What type of sensory information is carried by spinal nerves?
What type of sensory information is carried by spinal nerves?
What cranial nerve carries general sensory information from the head?
What cranial nerve carries general sensory information from the head?
How many neurons are typically in the general sensation pathway?
How many neurons are typically in the general sensation pathway?
Where does the first-order neuron enter the spinal cord?
Where does the first-order neuron enter the spinal cord?
What happens to the axon of the second-order neuron?
What happens to the axon of the second-order neuron?
In which structure does the third-order neuron have its cell body?
In which structure does the third-order neuron have its cell body?
To which area does the third-order neuron project?
To which area does the third-order neuron project?
The anterolateral system is primarily responsible for carrying which type of sensory information?
The anterolateral system is primarily responsible for carrying which type of sensory information?
Where do primary spinal afferents carrying pain and temperature information terminate?
Where do primary spinal afferents carrying pain and temperature information terminate?
What is the other name for dorsal column pathway tract?
What is the other name for dorsal column pathway tract?
The dorsal columns system carries what type of sensory information?
The dorsal columns system carries what type of sensory information?
What structure ascends ipsilateral to the spinal cord?
What structure ascends ipsilateral to the spinal cord?
Where does the axons of fasciculus gracilis and cuneatus terminate?
Where does the axons of fasciculus gracilis and cuneatus terminate?
Where do primary afferent fibers of the trigeminal nerve terminate?
Where do primary afferent fibers of the trigeminal nerve terminate?
Axons from which structure decussate across the midline?
Axons from which structure decussate across the midline?
What is meant by "somatotopic organization"?
What is meant by "somatotopic organization"?
What is the name of the prominent ridge of the descending corticospinal fibers?
What is the name of the prominent ridge of the descending corticospinal fibers?
Which of these are the tracts for the control of skilled voluntary movements?
Which of these are the tracts for the control of skilled voluntary movements?
The term 'peripheral nerve' refers to what?
The term 'peripheral nerve' refers to what?
What is the primary function of peripheral nerves?
What is the primary function of peripheral nerves?
A typical peripheral nerve consists of what?
A typical peripheral nerve consists of what?
Nerve fibers in peripheral nerves can be classified as what?
Nerve fibers in peripheral nerves can be classified as what?
Within peripheral nerves, nerve fibers are arranged in what?
Within peripheral nerves, nerve fibers are arranged in what?
What surrounds the bundles of nerve fibers within peripheral nerves?
What surrounds the bundles of nerve fibers within peripheral nerves?
What is the connective tissue layer that directly surrounds individual nerve fibers?
What is the connective tissue layer that directly surrounds individual nerve fibers?
What is the connective tissue layer that surrounds a bundle of nerve fibers (fascicle)?
What is the connective tissue layer that surrounds a bundle of nerve fibers (fascicle)?
What is the outermost connective tissue layer that ensheathes the entire nerve?
What is the outermost connective tissue layer that ensheathes the entire nerve?
The cranial and spinal meninges are continuous with which structures?
The cranial and spinal meninges are continuous with which structures?
Which meningeal layer is continuous with the endoneurium?
Which meningeal layer is continuous with the endoneurium?
What is the term for the degeneration of the distal portion of a transected nerve fiber?
What is the term for the degeneration of the distal portion of a transected nerve fiber?
Following nerve transection, what may happen to the proximal portion of the neuron?
Following nerve transection, what may happen to the proximal portion of the neuron?
The more distal the nerve transection, the ______ likely the cell body is to survive.
The more distal the nerve transection, the ______ likely the cell body is to survive.
What is indicated by the dispersal and loss of staining of Nissl granules?
What is indicated by the dispersal and loss of staining of Nissl granules?
During nerve regeneration, what role do endoneurial tubes play for new fibers?
During nerve regeneration, what role do endoneurial tubes play for new fibers?
What is the rate of growth of new nerve fibers during peripheral nerve regeneration?
What is the rate of growth of new nerve fibers during peripheral nerve regeneration?
In the context of nerve damage, what does 'distal areflexia' refer to?
In the context of nerve damage, what does 'distal areflexia' refer to?
What are the two pathological types listed in the lecture for peripheral neuropathies?
What are the two pathological types listed in the lecture for peripheral neuropathies?
What is the functional outcome of nerve fibers being redistributed in the spinal nerves?
What is the functional outcome of nerve fibers being redistributed in the spinal nerves?
Each spinal nerve is responsible for?
Each spinal nerve is responsible for?
The area of skin supplied by a single spinal nerve is called what?
The area of skin supplied by a single spinal nerve is called what?
A group of muscles innervated for movement are known as what?
A group of muscles innervated for movement are known as what?
The peripheral nervous system consists of what?
The peripheral nervous system consists of what?
What do sensory receptors detect?
What do sensory receptors detect?
What is the main function of efferent nerve endings?
What is the main function of efferent nerve endings?
Nerve endings are classified as what?
Nerve endings are classified as what?
Afferent nerve endings respond to which type of stimuli?
Afferent nerve endings respond to which type of stimuli?
What type of signal is conducted by nerve fibers of afferent nerve endings?
What type of signal is conducted by nerve fibers of afferent nerve endings?
Nerve endings that induce movement are specifically called what?
Nerve endings that induce movement are specifically called what?
Nerve endings that induce cellular secretion are called what?
Nerve endings that induce cellular secretion are called what?
What are the two sensory systems in the body?
What are the two sensory systems in the body?
Exteroceptors respond to what stimuli?
Exteroceptors respond to what stimuli?
Proprioceptors provide awareness of what?
Proprioceptors provide awareness of what?
What are the four characteristics of stimulus?
What are the four characteristics of stimulus?
What happens to a receptor when it is adequately stimulated?
What happens to a receptor when it is adequately stimulated?
Select the correct description of Slowly adapting receptors.
Select the correct description of Slowly adapting receptors.
Morphologically, one way the receptors may be classified is as...
Morphologically, one way the receptors may be classified is as...
Mechanoreceptors respond to what stimuli?
Mechanoreceptors respond to what stimuli?
The term 'peripheral nerve' applies to which of the following?
The term 'peripheral nerve' applies to which of the following?
Which of the following best describes the role of peripheral nerves?
Which of the following best describes the role of peripheral nerves?
A typical peripheral nerve is composed of:
A typical peripheral nerve is composed of:
What type of nerve fibers are found in peripheral nerves?
What type of nerve fibers are found in peripheral nerves?
Within peripheral nerves, how are nerve fibers arranged?
Within peripheral nerves, how are nerve fibers arranged?
What is the name for the connective tissue surrounding individual nerve fibers?
What is the name for the connective tissue surrounding individual nerve fibers?
Bundles of nerve fibers are surrounded by:
Bundles of nerve fibers are surrounded by:
The whole nerve is ensheathed by a tough coat known as:
The whole nerve is ensheathed by a tough coat known as:
The arachnoid mater is continuous with which connective tissue layer of a peripheral nerve?
The arachnoid mater is continuous with which connective tissue layer of a peripheral nerve?
What is the largest part of the hindbrain?
What is the largest part of the hindbrain?
From which aspect of the brainstem does the cerebellum originate?
From which aspect of the brainstem does the cerebellum originate?
Which structure does the cerebellum overlie?
Which structure does the cerebellum overlie?
How many pairs of fiber bundles connect the cerebellum to the brainstem?
How many pairs of fiber bundles connect the cerebellum to the brainstem?
What are the fiber bundles that connect the cerebellum to the brainstem called?
What are the fiber bundles that connect the cerebellum to the brainstem called?
Which of the following is NOT the name of a cerebellar peduncle?
Which of the following is NOT the name of a cerebellar peduncle?
Which part of the brainstem do the inferior cerebellar peduncles connect to?
Which part of the brainstem do the inferior cerebellar peduncles connect to?
To what part of the brainstem do the middle cerebellar peduncles connect?
To what part of the brainstem do the middle cerebellar peduncles connect?
To which part of the brainstem do the superior cerebellar peduncles connect the cerebellum?
To which part of the brainstem do the superior cerebellar peduncles connect the cerebellum?
What is the primary function of the cerebellum?
What is the primary function of the cerebellum?
At what level of consciousness does the cerebellum primarily operate?
At what level of consciousness does the cerebellum primarily operate?
Which function is primarily controlled by the cerebellum?
Which function is primarily controlled by the cerebellum?
Besides coordinating movement, the cerebellum also influences what?
Besides coordinating movement, the cerebellum also influences what?
Which cerebellar peduncle contains mostly efferent axons?
Which cerebellar peduncle contains mostly efferent axons?
Which cerebellar peduncle contains both afferent and efferent axons?
Which cerebellar peduncle contains both afferent and efferent axons?
Where is the tentorium cerebelli positioned?
Where is the tentorium cerebelli positioned?
Which structure does the free border of the tentorium cerebelli encircle?
Which structure does the free border of the tentorium cerebelli encircle?
What is the name for the raised midline region on the superior surface of the cerebellum?
What is the name for the raised midline region on the superior surface of the cerebellum?
The cerebellum is composed of how many laterally located hemispheres?
The cerebellum is composed of how many laterally located hemispheres?
What structure joins the two hemispheres of the cerebellum?
What structure joins the two hemispheres of the cerebellum?
What are the folds on the surface of the cerebellum called?
What are the folds on the surface of the cerebellum called?
How are the folia oriented on the surface of the cerebellum?
How are the folia oriented on the surface of the cerebellum?
What landmark separates the anterior lobe from the posterior lobe on the superior surface of the cerebellum?
What landmark separates the anterior lobe from the posterior lobe on the superior surface of the cerebellum?
Which fissure demarcates the flocculonodular lobe on the underside of the cerebellum?
Which fissure demarcates the flocculonodular lobe on the underside of the cerebellum?
What are the outer and inner layers of the cerebellum primarily composed of?
What are the outer and inner layers of the cerebellum primarily composed of?
What type of fibers primarily make up the white matter of the cerebellum?
What type of fibers primarily make up the white matter of the cerebellum?
What is the formation of afferent and efferent fibers in the cerebellum called?
What is the formation of afferent and efferent fibers in the cerebellum called?
What is found within the cerebellar white matter?
What is found within the cerebellar white matter?
How many bilaterally-paired cerebellar nuclei are buried deep within the white matter?
How many bilaterally-paired cerebellar nuclei are buried deep within the white matter?
What do the cerebellar nuclei primarily constitute?
What do the cerebellar nuclei primarily constitute?
With which structures do the cerebellar nuclei have important connections?
With which structures do the cerebellar nuclei have important connections?
What term describes the highly convoluted structure of the cerebellar cortex?
What term describes the highly convoluted structure of the cerebellar cortex?
What type of neurons primarily reside within the cerebellar cortex?
What type of neurons primarily reside within the cerebellar cortex?
To what level do the spinocerebellar tracts carry afferent information?
To what level do the spinocerebellar tracts carry afferent information?
From what structures do the spinocerebellar fibers derive information?
From what structures do the spinocerebellar fibers derive information?
What broader function do the spinocerebellar pathways primarily control?
What broader function do the spinocerebellar pathways primarily control?
The fibers of the dorsal spinocerebellar tract originate from which segments of the spinal cord?
The fibers of the dorsal spinocerebellar tract originate from which segments of the spinal cord?
Where do the axons of the dorsal spinocerebellar tract enter the cerebellum?
Where do the axons of the dorsal spinocerebellar tract enter the cerebellum?
What sensory organs are associated with the ventral spinocerebellar tract (Gower's)?
What sensory organs are associated with the ventral spinocerebellar tract (Gower's)?
What canal does the spinal cord occupy?
What canal does the spinal cord occupy?
What is the spinal cord continuous with rostrally?
What is the spinal cord continuous with rostrally?
Into how many segments is the spinal cord divided?
Into how many segments is the spinal cord divided?
Which segments make up the cervical enlargement of the spinal cord?
Which segments make up the cervical enlargement of the spinal cord?
Which segments are associated with the lumbar enlargement?
Which segments are associated with the lumbar enlargement?
What structure is formed as the spinal cord tapers caudally to the lumbar enlargement?
What structure is formed as the spinal cord tapers caudally to the lumbar enlargement?
Where does the filum terminale attach?
Where does the filum terminale attach?
When does the spinal cord occupy the entire length of the vertebral canal?
When does the spinal cord occupy the entire length of the vertebral canal?
At what level does the spinal cord typically terminate in adults?
At what level does the spinal cord typically terminate in adults?
How many pairs of spinal nerves does the spinal cord bear?
How many pairs of spinal nerves does the spinal cord bear?
What aspects of the spinal cord are spinal nerves attached to?
What aspects of the spinal cord are spinal nerves attached to?
Dorsal nerve roots contain which type of neurons?
Dorsal nerve roots contain which type of neurons?
Cell bodies of afferent neurons that bring sensory information from skin, muscles, and joints lie in which ganglia?
Cell bodies of afferent neurons that bring sensory information from skin, muscles, and joints lie in which ganglia?
What type of axons do ventral roots of the spinal nerves carry?
What type of axons do ventral roots of the spinal nerves carry?
Which spinal nerve does not have a dorsal root?
Which spinal nerve does not have a dorsal root?
Where do the C2-C7 spinal nerves exit?
Where do the C2-C7 spinal nerves exit?
If spinal nerves divide after leaving the intervertebral foramina, what do they produce?
If spinal nerves divide after leaving the intervertebral foramina, what do they produce?
What region does the dorsal ramus supply?
What region does the dorsal ramus supply?
What is lumbar puncture used to remove?
What is lumbar puncture used to remove?
What feature divides the spinal cord into two symmetrical halves?
What feature divides the spinal cord into two symmetrical halves?
What does the outer part of the spinal cord consist of?
What does the outer part of the spinal cord consist of?
What shape is the gray matter of the spinal cord?
What shape is the gray matter of the spinal cord?
Where do many afferent fibers entering in the dorsal root terminate?
Where do many afferent fibers entering in the dorsal root terminate?
Where can the cell bodies of motor neurons be found?
Where can the cell bodies of motor neurons be found?
In which spinal cord segments is a lateral horn located?
In which spinal cord segments is a lateral horn located?
In what zone do fibers intertwine with thin and thick fibers, giving a reticular appearance?
In what zone do fibers intertwine with thin and thick fibers, giving a reticular appearance?
What type of information is related to pain and temperature sensation?
What type of information is related to pain and temperature sensation?
Which of the following lamina is known as the substantia gelatinosa of Rolando?
Which of the following lamina is known as the substantia gelatinosa of Rolando?
What do the dorsal and ventral horns of the gray matter contain?
What do the dorsal and ventral horns of the gray matter contain?
When are spinal interneurons typically inhibited?
When are spinal interneurons typically inhibited?
Into what are dorsal roots formed?
Into what are dorsal roots formed?
Fibers in Lissauer’s tracts divide to form what?
Fibers in Lissauer’s tracts divide to form what?
What type of neuron releases glutamic acid to the spinal cortex?
What type of neuron releases glutamic acid to the spinal cortex?
Which structures are inhibited by the touch of large-diameter afferents?
Which structures are inhibited by the touch of large-diameter afferents?
What fibers conduct the sensation of hot and cold stimuli?
What fibers conduct the sensation of hot and cold stimuli?
Which areas of the spine contain well the most developed alpha and gamma motor neurons?
Which areas of the spine contain well the most developed alpha and gamma motor neurons?
What main function is served by the spinal cord and its associated spinal nerves?
What main function is served by the spinal cord and its associated spinal nerves?
What anatomical feature is the spinal cord continuous with rostrally?
What anatomical feature is the spinal cord continuous with rostrally?
The spinal cord is protected by the vertebral column and occupies which specific location?
The spinal cord is protected by the vertebral column and occupies which specific location?
How many coccygeal segments does the spinal cord typically have?
How many coccygeal segments does the spinal cord typically have?
Which spinal cord segments make up the cervical enlargement?
Which spinal cord segments make up the cervical enlargement?
The lumbar enlargement provides innervation for which region of the body?
The lumbar enlargement provides innervation for which region of the body?
The conus medullaris is what?
The conus medullaris is what?
What is the filum terminale?
What is the filum terminale?
In adults, where does the spinal cord typically terminate?
In adults, where does the spinal cord typically terminate?
What is the cauda equina?
What is the cauda equina?
From what aspects of the spinal cord do the spinal nerves originate?
From what aspects of the spinal cord do the spinal nerves originate?
What forms the dorsal and ventral nerve roots?
What forms the dorsal and ventral nerve roots?
Dorsal and ventral nerve roots pass through what structures?
Dorsal and ventral nerve roots pass through what structures?
What is contained in the cell bodies within the dorsal root ganglia (DRG)?
What is contained in the cell bodies within the dorsal root ganglia (DRG)?
What type of axons are carried by the ventral roots of the spinal nerves?
What type of axons are carried by the ventral roots of the spinal nerves?
Where are the cell bodies of the efferent axons found?
Where are the cell bodies of the efferent axons found?
Which nerve does not have a dorsal root, and why not?
Which nerve does not have a dorsal root, and why not?
The spinal nerve C8 leaves below which vertebra?
The spinal nerve C8 leaves below which vertebra?
After leaving the intervertebral foramina, what do spinal nerves divide into?
After leaving the intervertebral foramina, what do spinal nerves divide into?
Which region of the body is supplied by the dorsal ramus of a spinal nerve?
Which region of the body is supplied by the dorsal ramus of a spinal nerve?
What is supplied by the ventral ramus of the spinal nerve?
What is supplied by the ventral ramus of the spinal nerve?
What is the purpose of a lumbar puncture?
What is the purpose of a lumbar puncture?
Through what structure does the central canal connect rostrally?
Through what structure does the central canal connect rostrally?
Bundles of what component primarily make up the white matter of the spinal cord?
Bundles of what component primarily make up the white matter of the spinal cord?
What anatomical shape approximates the spinal cord's gray matter?
What anatomical shape approximates the spinal cord's gray matter?
Which of the following structures are protrusions of the gray matter?
Which of the following structures are protrusions of the gray matter?
Which root does the body of motor neurons lie adjacent to?
Which root does the body of motor neurons lie adjacent to?
Which spinal cord segments contain a lateral horn?
Which spinal cord segments contain a lateral horn?
Afferent fibers entering through the dorsal roots split into ascending a descending branches, what is the name of the structure that some of these fibers travel in?
Afferent fibers entering through the dorsal roots split into ascending a descending branches, what is the name of the structure that some of these fibers travel in?
What is dorsal horn mainly associated with?
What is dorsal horn mainly associated with?
Collaterals of what type of afferents are received by the substantia gelatinosa (Rexed's laminae I-III)?
Collaterals of what type of afferents are received by the substantia gelatinosa (Rexed's laminae I-III)?
When referring to interneurons in the dorsal horn synapsing with nociceptive afferent axons, what peoptides are released?
When referring to interneurons in the dorsal horn synapsing with nociceptive afferent axons, what peoptides are released?
What is the name for area containing spinal reflexes that lie in the dorsal horn.
What is the name for area containing spinal reflexes that lie in the dorsal horn.
What is the medial group wihin lamina VIII (of lamina IX) responsible for innervating?
What is the medial group wihin lamina VIII (of lamina IX) responsible for innervating?
What specific part of the body does the phrenic nerve innervate?
What specific part of the body does the phrenic nerve innervate?
What actions may the interneurons in the dorsal horn play a role in?
What actions may the interneurons in the dorsal horn play a role in?
What afferent signals are ascending spinal tracts responsible for?
What afferent signals are ascending spinal tracts responsible for?
The first order of primary afferent neuron runs through the what structre?
The first order of primary afferent neuron runs through the what structre?
In the Dorsal Column system, what type of information is carried relating to the body?
In the Dorsal Column system, what type of information is carried relating to the body?
Which area does both nuclei gracilis and cuneatus ascend to without interruption?
Which area does both nuclei gracilis and cuneatus ascend to without interruption?
How do the axons from the second-order neurons ascend through the brainstem?
How do the axons from the second-order neurons ascend through the brainstem?
Which of the following is part of the diencephalon?
Which of the following is part of the diencephalon?
The forebrain consists of which structures?
The forebrain consists of which structures?
Which part of the diencephalon is the largest?
Which part of the diencephalon is the largest?
The thalamus has extensive reciprocal connections with what structure?
The thalamus has extensive reciprocal connections with what structure?
Which structure receives impulses from the cerebellum and basal ganglia?
Which structure receives impulses from the cerebellum and basal ganglia?
Which of the following can be seen on the base of the brain?
Which of the following can be seen on the base of the brain?
The infundibulum extends from what structure?
The infundibulum extends from what structure?
Which structures are located caudal to the tuber cinereum on either side of the midline?
Which structures are located caudal to the tuber cinereum on either side of the midline?
The hypothalamus has important connections with which system?
The hypothalamus has important connections with which system?
The diencephalon forms the lateral wall of what?
The diencephalon forms the lateral wall of what?
Which part of the ventricular wall is formed by the thalamus?
Which part of the ventricular wall is formed by the thalamus?
Which part of the diencephalon is located in its most caudal and dorsal region?
Which part of the diencephalon is located in its most caudal and dorsal region?
The epithalamus primarily consists of what?
The epithalamus primarily consists of what?
Which hormone does the pineal gland synthesize?
Which hormone does the pineal gland synthesize?
The sleep/waking cycle is also known as the:
The sleep/waking cycle is also known as the:
Which of the following is linked by a pathway including the septum, hypothalamus and monoaminergic nuclei?
Which of the following is linked by a pathway including the septum, hypothalamus and monoaminergic nuclei?
Extending anteriorly from the habenula is the:
Extending anteriorly from the habenula is the:
The subthalamic nucleus lies against what structure?
The subthalamic nucleus lies against what structure?
The subthalamic nucleus has prominent connections with the globus pallidus and the:
The subthalamic nucleus has prominent connections with the globus pallidus and the:
The zona incerta is a rostral extension of what?
The zona incerta is a rostral extension of what?
The zona incerta has pathways to integrate what sensory challenges?
The zona incerta has pathways to integrate what sensory challenges?
With the hypothalamus, what does the thalamus form?
With the hypothalamus, what does the thalamus form?
In most individuals, the two thalami are joined by what?
In most individuals, the two thalami are joined by what?
Another fascicle of nerve fibers with limbic connections that overlie the thalamus are called?
Another fascicle of nerve fibers with limbic connections that overlie the thalamus are called?
Which structure connects the amygdala with the bed nucleus and ventromedial nucleus of the hypothalamus?
Which structure connects the amygdala with the bed nucleus and ventromedial nucleus of the hypothalamus?
Lateral to the thalamus lies what part of the internal capsule?
Lateral to the thalamus lies what part of the internal capsule?
What is the primary site of relay for all sensory pathways except olfaction?
What is the primary site of relay for all sensory pathways except olfaction?
The thalamus is a site where sensory inputs can be:
The thalamus is a site where sensory inputs can be:
Axons from thalamic neurons that project to the neocortex travel where?
Axons from thalamic neurons that project to the neocortex travel where?
Which nuclei receive information specific to a sensory modality and project to a specific area of the neocortex?
Which nuclei receive information specific to a sensory modality and project to a specific area of the neocortex?
What type of nuclei show broad and diffuse projections through the cerebral cortex?
What type of nuclei show broad and diffuse projections through the cerebral cortex?
Specific thalamic nuclei have direct connections with which areas?
Specific thalamic nuclei have direct connections with which areas?
The dorsal nuclei are in contact with what bodies?
The dorsal nuclei are in contact with what bodies?
The medial and lateral geniculate nuclei are collectively called what?
The medial and lateral geniculate nuclei are collectively called what?
What is the internal medullary lamina composed of?
What is the internal medullary lamina composed of?
The reticular thalamic nucleus (grey matter) is a thin shell of what?
The reticular thalamic nucleus (grey matter) is a thin shell of what?
What does the metathalamus include?
What does the metathalamus include?
Almost all sensory pathways are relayed via the thalamus and project where?
Almost all sensory pathways are relayed via the thalamus and project where?
The anterior thalamic radiation projects to which lobe?
The anterior thalamic radiation projects to which lobe?
Which of the following structures is NOT part of the diencephalon?
Which of the following structures is NOT part of the diencephalon?
What other major brain structure is the forebrain rostral to?
What other major brain structure is the forebrain rostral to?
What structure forms the dorsal part of the ventricular wall in the diencephalon?
What structure forms the dorsal part of the ventricular wall in the diencephalon?
Which hormone is synthesized by the pineal gland, a key component of the epithalamus?
Which hormone is synthesized by the pineal gland, a key component of the epithalamus?
Together with the hypothalamus, what does the thalamus form?
Together with the hypothalamus, what does the thalamus form?
What general functional role is played by several nuclei within the thalamus?
What general functional role is played by several nuclei within the thalamus?
Which area receives retinotopic input via the optic tract?
Which area receives retinotopic input via the optic tract?
The medial geniculate nucleus relays what type of information?
The medial geniculate nucleus relays what type of information?
What type of motor feedback does the ventral lateral nucleus receive from the cerebellum and basal ganglia?
What type of motor feedback does the ventral lateral nucleus receive from the cerebellum and basal ganglia?
With what is the medial dorsal nucleus of the thalamus associated?
With what is the medial dorsal nucleus of the thalamus associated?
What areas are most sensory pathways relayed through?
What areas are most sensory pathways relayed through?
Damage to the thalamus may lead to loss of sensation in what manner?
Damage to the thalamus may lead to loss of sensation in what manner?
What is one possible effect of continuous nicotine exposure on the brain?
What is one possible effect of continuous nicotine exposure on the brain?
What is the shape of the subthalamic nucleus in a coronal section?
What is the shape of the subthalamic nucleus in a coronal section?
Damage to the medial portion of the dorsomedial nucleus may impair?
Damage to the medial portion of the dorsomedial nucleus may impair?
The cerebral hemisphere is derived from which embryological structure?
The cerebral hemisphere is derived from which embryological structure?
Which part of the brain reaches the greatest degree of development in humans?
Which part of the brain reaches the greatest degree of development in humans?
What type of matter primarily composes the cerebral cortex?
What type of matter primarily composes the cerebral cortex?
What are the ridges of the cerebral cortex called?
What are the ridges of the cerebral cortex called?
What are the furrows of the cerebral cortex called?
What are the furrows of the cerebral cortex called?
Approximately what percentage of the cerebral cortex's surface area is hidden within the sulci?
Approximately what percentage of the cerebral cortex's surface area is hidden within the sulci?
What type of tissue lies beneath the surface of the cerebral cortex?
What type of tissue lies beneath the surface of the cerebral cortex?
What is the name for the band of fibers connecting the cerebral hemispheres?
What is the name for the band of fibers connecting the cerebral hemispheres?
Into how many lobes can each cerebral hemisphere be divided?
Into how many lobes can each cerebral hemisphere be divided?
What is the name of the deepest cleft on the lateral surface of the cerebral hemisphere?
What is the name of the deepest cleft on the lateral surface of the cerebral hemisphere?
Which lobe does the lateral fissure separate from the frontal and parietal lobes?
Which lobe does the lateral fissure separate from the frontal and parietal lobes?
What is the name of the cortical area found deep within the lateral fissure?
What is the name of the cortical area found deep within the lateral fissure?
What term refers to the parts of the frontal, parietal and temporal lobes that overlie the insula?
What term refers to the parts of the frontal, parietal and temporal lobes that overlie the insula?
Which lobe constitutes the entire region in front of the central sulcus?
Which lobe constitutes the entire region in front of the central sulcus?
Which gyrus lies immediately in front of the central sulcus?
Which gyrus lies immediately in front of the central sulcus?
Which gyrus is the site of the primary somatosensory cortex?
Which gyrus is the site of the primary somatosensory cortex?
Which sulcus is used to locate the primary visual cortex?
Which sulcus is used to locate the primary visual cortex?
The temporal lobe lies beneath which fissure?
The temporal lobe lies beneath which fissure?
What area is included within the superior temporal gyrus?
What area is included within the superior temporal gyrus?
Where are the transverse temporal gyri (Heschl's convolutions) located?
Where are the transverse temporal gyri (Heschl's convolutions) located?
Which landmark is used to find the somatosensory cortex?
Which landmark is used to find the somatosensory cortex?
Within which lobe is the primary visual cortex found?
Within which lobe is the primary visual cortex found?
What is the general function of the anterior part of the cerebrum (frontal lobe)?
What is the general function of the anterior part of the cerebrum (frontal lobe)?
What is the region immediately anterior to the primary motor cortex (Brodmann's area 6)?
What is the region immediately anterior to the primary motor cortex (Brodmann's area 6)?
Damage to the frontal eye field (Brodmann's area 8) typically causes what?
Damage to the frontal eye field (Brodmann's area 8) typically causes what?
In most individuals, which hemisphere is responsible for the comprehension and expression of language?
In most individuals, which hemisphere is responsible for the comprehension and expression of language?
What is the functional role of the precentral gyrus?
What is the functional role of the precentral gyrus?
What Brodmann's area corresponds to the primary motor cortex?
What Brodmann's area corresponds to the primary motor cortex?
What is the organization called within the somatosensory cortex?
What is the organization called within the somatosensory cortex?
Which cerebral cortex receives principal subcortical afferents from VL nucleus of thalamus?
Which cerebral cortex receives principal subcortical afferents from VL nucleus of thalamus?
On the medial surface of the hemisphere, where is the supplementary motor area located?
On the medial surface of the hemisphere, where is the supplementary motor area located?
Which is a primary function of the cortical areas designated as premotor?
Which is a primary function of the cortical areas designated as premotor?
Which cortical area most directly influences activity of the primary motor cortex?
Which cortical area most directly influences activity of the primary motor cortex?
Where does Broca's motor speech area fall anatomically?
Where does Broca's motor speech area fall anatomically?
Which lobe does lie posterior to the frontal lobe?
Which lobe does lie posterior to the frontal lobe?
A somatosensory cortex and primary visual cortex is contained where?
A somatosensory cortex and primary visual cortex is contained where?
What is known as the is the site at which thalamocortical axons terminate?
What is known as the is the site at which thalamocortical axons terminate?
Damage to right parietal lobe, an individual will have trouble with which of the following?
Damage to right parietal lobe, an individual will have trouble with which of the following?
The insular cortex would be found location in which anatomical feature?
The insular cortex would be found location in which anatomical feature?
Where would Heschl's gyri or transverse temporal gyri be located?
Where would Heschl's gyri or transverse temporal gyri be located?
The primary auditory cortex does receives signals from what thalamic nucleui?
The primary auditory cortex does receives signals from what thalamic nucleui?
What visual portion also is complex and uncertain?
What visual portion also is complex and uncertain?
What part of the brain does the occipital lobe primarily cover?
What part of the brain does the occipital lobe primarily cover?
Which sulci marks location of primary visual cortex?
Which sulci marks location of primary visual cortex?
Damage to the visual association cortex lead to what outcome?
Damage to the visual association cortex lead to what outcome?
What higher functions do the cerebral hemisphere control primarily, or exclusively?
What higher functions do the cerebral hemisphere control primarily, or exclusively?
What skill is right cerebral hemisphere dominant for?
What skill is right cerebral hemisphere dominant for?
What is this condition called the inability to accurately name, describe, or identify them?
What is this condition called the inability to accurately name, describe, or identify them?
What disease is a loss of episodic memory or called anterograde?
What disease is a loss of episodic memory or called anterograde?
Which of these structures is part of the basal ganglia?
Which of these structures is part of the basal ganglia?
Which anatomical structure is found in close proximity to the internal capsule?
Which anatomical structure is found in close proximity to the internal capsule?
What is the collective term for the caudate nucleus and putamen?
What is the collective term for the caudate nucleus and putamen?
Which lobe of the brain contains the amygdala?
Which lobe of the brain contains the amygdala?
Which of the following is the function of the nucleus accumbens?
Which of the following is the function of the nucleus accumbens?
With what system or area does the nucleus accumbens have close connections?
With what system or area does the nucleus accumbens have close connections?
What is the primary role of the basal ganglia?
What is the primary role of the basal ganglia?
Which of the following is anatomically and functionally related to the caudate nucleus and putamen?
Which of the following is anatomically and functionally related to the caudate nucleus and putamen?
The lentiform nucleus is composed of which two structures?
The lentiform nucleus is composed of which two structures?
What is another name for the lentiform nucleus?
What is another name for the lentiform nucleus?
Which of the following best describes the shape of the lentiform nucleus?
Which of the following best describes the shape of the lentiform nucleus?
Which phrase refers to the phylogenetically more recent part of the striatum?
Which phrase refers to the phylogenetically more recent part of the striatum?
The head of the caudate is almost completely separated from the putamen by which structure?
The head of the caudate is almost completely separated from the putamen by which structure?
Which part of the striatum constitutes the nucleus accumbens?
Which part of the striatum constitutes the nucleus accumbens?
Where does the tail of the caudate nucleus descend?
Where does the tail of the caudate nucleus descend?
What separates the putamen from the globus pallidus?
What separates the putamen from the globus pallidus?
What structure contains cholinergic neurons, one of them being the nucleus basalis of Meynert?
What structure contains cholinergic neurons, one of them being the nucleus basalis of Meynert?
In Alzheimer's disease, which neurons undergo degeneration?
In Alzheimer's disease, which neurons undergo degeneration?
Afferents to the striatum come from the cerebral cortex, the substantia nigra pars compacta, and the:
Afferents to the striatum come from the cerebral cortex, the substantia nigra pars compacta, and the:
Projections from the frontal lobe project mainly to what structure?
Projections from the frontal lobe project mainly to what structure?
Which neurotransmitter is used by corticostriatal fibers that are excitatory to striatal neurons?
Which neurotransmitter is used by corticostriatal fibers that are excitatory to striatal neurons?
Which area are the intralaminar nuclei (centromedian and parafascicular nuclei) found in?
Which area are the intralaminar nuclei (centromedian and parafascicular nuclei) found in?
The nigrostriatal projection originates from which structure?
The nigrostriatal projection originates from which structure?
Which substance is the neurotransmitter of the nigrostriatal pathway?
Which substance is the neurotransmitter of the nigrostriatal pathway?
The D1 receptors transduce dopamine as what type of signal?
The D1 receptors transduce dopamine as what type of signal?
The ventral tegmental area (VTA) provides dopaminergic input to which structure?
The ventral tegmental area (VTA) provides dopaminergic input to which structure?
What is the general organization of the basal ganglia circuitry?
What is the general organization of the basal ganglia circuitry?
What type of movement is controlled by the oculomotor loop?
What type of movement is controlled by the oculomotor loop?
What structure is the main source of inputs to the limbic loop of the basal ganglia?
What structure is the main source of inputs to the limbic loop of the basal ganglia?
To which nuclei does the ventral pallidum project fibers?
To which nuclei does the ventral pallidum project fibers?
Which of the following are the 'input' portions of the basal ganglia?
Which of the following are the 'input' portions of the basal ganglia?
Medium spiny neurons are the cells of origin found in what brain structure?
Medium spiny neurons are the cells of origin found in what brain structure?
The cells (top) that project to the internal segment project are comprised of what?
The cells (top) that project to the internal segment project are comprised of what?
The direct pathway disinhibits what?
The direct pathway disinhibits what?
Efferent striatal projections are inhibitory are utilize what?
Efferent striatal projections are inhibitory are utilize what?
Where does the principal projection of the external pallidum project to?
Where does the principal projection of the external pallidum project to?
A small contingent of medial pallidal efferent fibers passes caudally to terminate where?
A small contingent of medial pallidal efferent fibers passes caudally to terminate where?
A homolog to the internal segment of the globus pallidus is the?
A homolog to the internal segment of the globus pallidus is the?
What is the function of the basal ganglia?
What is the function of the basal ganglia?
The combination of symptoms of basal ganglia depend on what?
The combination of symptoms of basal ganglia depend on what?
What is the most common disorder of the basal ganglia?
What is the most common disorder of the basal ganglia?
Parkinson's disease is caused by degeneration of what?
Parkinson's disease is caused by degeneration of what?
What crosses the blood-brain barrier?
What crosses the blood-brain barrier?
The term chorea is associated with the degeneration on what part of the brain?
The term chorea is associated with the degeneration on what part of the brain?
Which of the following is considered part of the basal ganglia?
Which of the following is considered part of the basal ganglia?
The putamen and globus pallidus are sometimes collectively referred to as the:
The putamen and globus pallidus are sometimes collectively referred to as the:
Which part of the brain is the nucleus accumbens associated with?
Which part of the brain is the nucleus accumbens associated with?
The basal ganglia are primarily concerned with what?
The basal ganglia are primarily concerned with what?
Which structure has connections with the amygdala, linking the basal ganglia and the limbic system?
Which structure has connections with the amygdala, linking the basal ganglia and the limbic system?
The caudate nucleus and putamen are collectively referred to as what?
The caudate nucleus and putamen are collectively referred to as what?
What is the function of the globus pallidus?
What is the function of the globus pallidus?
Where is the amygdala located?
Where is the amygdala located?
Which part of the brain does the ventral tegmental area (VTA) provide dopaminergic input to?
Which part of the brain does the ventral tegmental area (VTA) provide dopaminergic input to?
What is the main output of the basal ganglia?
What is the main output of the basal ganglia?
Which broader brain region contains the hypothalamus?
Which broader brain region contains the hypothalamus?
The hypothalamus is located ventral to what structure.
The hypothalamus is located ventral to what structure.
The hypothalamus contains nuclei that coordinate what type of responses?
The hypothalamus contains nuclei that coordinate what type of responses?
What main function does the hypothalamus play in the body's response to infection?
What main function does the hypothalamus play in the body's response to infection?
What division of the autonomic nervous system has the function of decreasing heart rate and is associated with the anterior hypothalamus?
What division of the autonomic nervous system has the function of decreasing heart rate and is associated with the anterior hypothalamus?
What three organ systems does the hypothalamus control?
What three organ systems does the hypothalamus control?
What does the hypothalamus help regulate through hormonal control?
What does the hypothalamus help regulate through hormonal control?
What is the volume of the hypothalamus in the brain?
What is the volume of the hypothalamus in the brain?
What is the weight of the hypothalamus?
What is the weight of the hypothalamus?
Name the caudal landmark for the hypothalamas.
Name the caudal landmark for the hypothalamas.
With what brain area does the lamina terminalis interconnect?
With what brain area does the lamina terminalis interconnect?
What behavior is relatively simple and stereotyped in lower animals and is directed to satisfying the drives of thirst, hunger, sex, and defense?
What behavior is relatively simple and stereotyped in lower animals and is directed to satisfying the drives of thirst, hunger, sex, and defense?
Name the part of the brain that has neurons contributing to wakefulness by secreting the neuropeptide orexin (hypocretin).
Name the part of the brain that has neurons contributing to wakefulness by secreting the neuropeptide orexin (hypocretin).
The LHA activates tuberomammillary neurons and what location in the pons, contributing to arousal and wakefulness.
The LHA activates tuberomammillary neurons and what location in the pons, contributing to arousal and wakefulness.
When are growth hormones released?
When are growth hormones released?
Lesions to what area result in insomnia?
Lesions to what area result in insomnia?
Damage to the Papez circuit is associated with what disorder?
Damage to the Papez circuit is associated with what disorder?
What structure extends from the hypothalamus to the pituitary gland?
What structure extends from the hypothalamus to the pituitary gland?
The median eminence, located at the base of the hypothalamus, serves as an interface between the neural and what other system?
The median eminence, located at the base of the hypothalamus, serves as an interface between the neural and what other system?
What is a key function of the paraventricular and supraoptic nuclei?
What is a key function of the paraventricular and supraoptic nuclei?
What symptoms might be produced by the destruction of the anterior nucleus
What symptoms might be produced by the destruction of the anterior nucleus
What hormone regulates the sleep/wake cycle?
What hormone regulates the sleep/wake cycle?
What is the role of the blood brain barrier?
What is the role of the blood brain barrier?
Which nuclei stimulate eating?
Which nuclei stimulate eating?
Lesions of what area will result in obesity?
Lesions of what area will result in obesity?
What area is the satiety center?
What area is the satiety center?
Is the anterior pituitary neural in origin?
Is the anterior pituitary neural in origin?
The supraoptic nuclei project to which location?
The supraoptic nuclei project to which location?
What two hormones are released by the posterior pituitary?
What two hormones are released by the posterior pituitary?
Pituitary adenomas may also lead to what kind of visual field loss?
Pituitary adenomas may also lead to what kind of visual field loss?
The suprachiasmatic nuclei are concerned with what?
The suprachiasmatic nuclei are concerned with what?
The mammillary bodies project to what part of the thalamus?
The mammillary bodies project to what part of the thalamus?
What two neuronal products work as both peripheral hormones and a neurotransmitters?
What two neuronal products work as both peripheral hormones and a neurotransmitters?
Activation of the sympathetic division of the autonomic nervous system is associated with what part of the hypothalamus?
Activation of the sympathetic division of the autonomic nervous system is associated with what part of the hypothalamus?
What is the anterior-posterior dimension of the arcuate nucleus?
What is the anterior-posterior dimension of the arcuate nucleus?
What system do the medial forebrain bundle connection?
What system do the medial forebrain bundle connection?
The mammillothalamic tract is part of what circuit?
The mammillothalamic tract is part of what circuit?
From which embryological structure is the cerebral hemisphere derived?
From which embryological structure is the cerebral hemisphere derived?
What type of matter primarily makes up the cerebral cortex?
What type of matter primarily makes up the cerebral cortex?
What are the ridges on the surface of the cerebral cortex called?
What are the ridges on the surface of the cerebral cortex called?
What are the furrows on the surface of the cerebral cortex called?
What are the furrows on the surface of the cerebral cortex called?
What percentage of the cerebral cortex is estimated to be hidden within the depths of the sulci?
What percentage of the cerebral cortex is estimated to be hidden within the depths of the sulci?
What axons beneath the cerebral cortex form an extensive mass of white matter?
What axons beneath the cerebral cortex form an extensive mass of white matter?
Which of the following best describes the function of the falx cerebri?
Which of the following best describes the function of the falx cerebri?
What structure unites the cerebral hemispheres in the depths of the longitudinal fissure?
What structure unites the cerebral hemispheres in the depths of the longitudinal fissure?
What is the function of the lateral fissure?
What is the function of the lateral fissure?
Which cortical area lies within the depths of the lateral fissure?
Which cortical area lies within the depths of the lateral fissure?
Which lobe primarily constitutes the region in front of the central sulcus?
Which lobe primarily constitutes the region in front of the central sulcus?
Which area is located most anteriorly in the brain?
Which area is located most anteriorly in the brain?
Which of the following areas makes up most of the frontal lobe?
Which of the following areas makes up most of the frontal lobe?
Which cortex is the most anterior part of the parietal lobe?
Which cortex is the most anterior part of the parietal lobe?
Which sulcus on the medial surface clearly marks the boundary between the parietal and occipital lobes?
Which sulcus on the medial surface clearly marks the boundary between the parietal and occipital lobes?
The occipital lobe's primary function is:
The occipital lobe's primary function is:
The prominent calcarine sulcus on the medial surface of the occipital lobe indicates
The prominent calcarine sulcus on the medial surface of the occipital lobe indicates
What fissure does the temporal lobe lie beneath?
What fissure does the temporal lobe lie beneath?
What anatomical feature is contained within the superior temporal gyrus?
What anatomical feature is contained within the superior temporal gyrus?
Which gyrus curves around the corpus callosum?
Which gyrus curves around the corpus callosum?
What sulcus separates the cingulate gyrus from the rest of the hemisphere?
What sulcus separates the cingulate gyrus from the rest of the hemisphere?
Where is the frontal lobe located in relation to the central sulcus?
Where is the frontal lobe located in relation to the central sulcus?
The precentral gyrus is best referred to as the...
The precentral gyrus is best referred to as the...
The precentral gyrus corresponds to:
The precentral gyrus corresponds to:
Within the cortex of the precentral gyrus, body is represented in a precise...
Within the cortex of the precentral gyrus, body is represented in a precise...
Where is the head area located in the context of representation of parts of the body?
Where is the head area located in the context of representation of parts of the body?
The body is inverted, with the x area located in the inferior parts of the precentral gyrus, just above the y.
The body is inverted, with the x area located in the inferior parts of the precentral gyrus, just above the y.
The principal subcortical afferents to the primary motor cortex originate from the VL nucleus of the:
The principal subcortical afferents to the primary motor cortex originate from the VL nucleus of the:
Which anatomical region is immediately anterior to the primary motor cortex?
Which anatomical region is immediately anterior to the primary motor cortex?
What area lies mediately in front of the premotor cortex?
What area lies mediately in front of the premotor cortex?
Giant Betz cells:
Giant Betz cells:
Unilateral damage to the frontal eye causes conjugate deviation of the eyes towards the side of the x.
Unilateral damage to the frontal eye causes conjugate deviation of the eyes towards the side of the x.
Where is Broca's Area (motor speech area) typically located in most people?
Where is Broca's Area (motor speech area) typically located in most people?
The extensive regions that lie anterior to the premotor area are referred to as
The extensive regions that lie anterior to the premotor area are referred to as
What cognitive functions is the prefrontal cortex known to have?
What cognitive functions is the prefrontal cortex known to have?
What lobe is bounded posteriorly and inferiorly by the occipital and temporal lobes?
What lobe is bounded posteriorly and inferiorly by the occipital and temporal lobes?
The area of the cortex devoted to a particular body part reflects the richness of x innervation
The area of the cortex devoted to a particular body part reflects the richness of x innervation
That area of the brain is part of the primary gustatory cortex?
That area of the brain is part of the primary gustatory cortex?
Within the superior bank of the temporal gyrus.
Within the superior bank of the temporal gyrus.
Lesions of the primary visual cortex cause blindness in the corresponding what of the visual field.
Lesions of the primary visual cortex cause blindness in the corresponding what of the visual field.
What best describes the composition of commissural fibers?
What best describes the composition of commissural fibers?
Where does the largest neural input to the hypothalamus originate?
Where does the largest neural input to the hypothalamus originate?
What type of signals does the circulating blood provide to the hypothalamus?
What type of signals does the circulating blood provide to the hypothalamus?
What is the main function of the paraventricular and supraoptic nuclei?
What is the main function of the paraventricular and supraoptic nuclei?
What main hormone is associated with the suprachiasmatic nucleus?
What main hormone is associated with the suprachiasmatic nucleus?
The hypothalamus is attached to which structure via the infundibulum?
The hypothalamus is attached to which structure via the infundibulum?
Which of the following is the largest part of the forebrain?
Which of the following is the largest part of the forebrain?
Approximately what percentage of the cerebral cortex is hidden within the sulci?
Approximately what percentage of the cerebral cortex is hidden within the sulci?
Axons running to and from cells of the cortex form what?
Axons running to and from cells of the cortex form what?
Which structure unites the cerebral hemispheres?
Which structure unites the cerebral hemispheres?
What kind of fibers make up the corpus callosum?
What kind of fibers make up the corpus callosum?
What is the deepest cleft on the lateral surface of the hemisphere?
What is the deepest cleft on the lateral surface of the hemisphere?
Where does the frontal lobe lie in relation to the central sulcus?
Where does the frontal lobe lie in relation to the central sulcus?
Name the structure lying immediately anterior and parallel to the central sulcus:
Name the structure lying immediately anterior and parallel to the central sulcus:
What primary cortex is located in the postcentral gyrus?
What primary cortex is located in the postcentral gyrus?
Where does the visual cortex receive fibers from the lateral geniculate nucleus?
Where does the visual cortex receive fibers from the lateral geniculate nucleus?
What sulcus prominently indicates the location of the primary visual cortex on the medial surface?
What sulcus prominently indicates the location of the primary visual cortex on the medial surface?
What area is referred to as the motor speech area?
What area is referred to as the motor speech area?
In most humans, which hemisphere is said to be dominant for language?
In most humans, which hemisphere is said to be dominant for language?
The extensive regions of cortex anterior to promotor are called what?
The extensive regions of cortex anterior to promotor are called what?
What part of the brain is closely associated with motor aspects of speech?
What part of the brain is closely associated with motor aspects of speech?
What sulcus extends rostrally and is sometimes termed the rhinal fissure?
What sulcus extends rostrally and is sometimes termed the rhinal fissure?
The anterior spinal artery arises from which blood vessel(s)?
The anterior spinal artery arises from which blood vessel(s)?
Where does the anterior spinal artery descend?
Where does the anterior spinal artery descend?
The posterior spinal arteries typically arise from which blood vessels?
The posterior spinal arteries typically arise from which blood vessels?
What surface of the spinal cord do the posterior spinal arteries run caudally on?
What surface of the spinal cord do the posterior spinal arteries run caudally on?
What vessels provide serial reinforcement to the anterior and posterior spinal arteries?
What vessels provide serial reinforcement to the anterior and posterior spinal arteries?
Through which structures do radicular arteries pass?
Through which structures do radicular arteries pass?
The great radicular artery (artery of Adamkiewicz) typically arises between which vertebral level?
The great radicular artery (artery of Adamkiewicz) typically arises between which vertebral level?
What anterior and posterior veins run in the midline of the spinal cord?
What anterior and posterior veins run in the midline of the spinal cord?
Posterolateral veins are located near which structure?
Posterolateral veins are located near which structure?
The ascending lumbar veins and the azygos veins communicate with which venous plexus?
The ascending lumbar veins and the azygos veins communicate with which venous plexus?
What area of the spinal cord is most vulnerable to blood supply issues?
What area of the spinal cord is most vulnerable to blood supply issues?
Occlusion of which artery leads to paraplegia and incontinence?
Occlusion of which artery leads to paraplegia and incontinence?
Which sensory modalities are preferentially lost with occlusion of the anterior spinal cord?
Which sensory modalities are preferentially lost with occlusion of the anterior spinal cord?
Which arteries primarily supply the brain with blood?
Which arteries primarily supply the brain with blood?
Where does the internal carotid artery enter the cranial cavity?
Where does the internal carotid artery enter the cranial cavity?
What structures are supplied by the internal carotid arteries and their branches?
What structures are supplied by the internal carotid arteries and their branches?
Where does the internal carotid artery bifurcate into its two terminal branches?
Where does the internal carotid artery bifurcate into its two terminal branches?
The internal carotid artery is found within which area of the neck?
The internal carotid artery is found within which area of the neck?
The cervical part of the internal carotid artery travels with the internal jugular vein and the...
The cervical part of the internal carotid artery travels with the internal jugular vein and the...
Which structure does the petrous part of the internal carotid artery cross without passing through it?
Which structure does the petrous part of the internal carotid artery cross without passing through it?
Which artery passes from the carotid canal to the tympanic cavity?
Which artery passes from the carotid canal to the tympanic cavity?
In what sinus does the cavernous part of the internal carotid artery pass through?
In what sinus does the cavernous part of the internal carotid artery pass through?
What is the curve of the cavernous part of the internal carotid artery known as?
What is the curve of the cavernous part of the internal carotid artery known as?
Which cranial nerves run through the cavernous sinus, lateral to the internal carotid artery?
Which cranial nerves run through the cavernous sinus, lateral to the internal carotid artery?
Which arteries supply the neurohypophysis?
Which arteries supply the neurohypophysis?
The superior hypophyseal artery arises from which blood vessel?
The superior hypophyseal artery arises from which blood vessel?
The final portion of the internal carotid artery is considered the...
The final portion of the internal carotid artery is considered the...
After leaving the cavernous sinus, the internal carotid artery travels between which structures?
After leaving the cavernous sinus, the internal carotid artery travels between which structures?
Into what two terminal branches does the internal carotid artery bifurcate?
Into what two terminal branches does the internal carotid artery bifurcate?
Where does the ophthalmic artery originate?
Where does the ophthalmic artery originate?
With what structure does the ophthalmic artery enter the optic canal?
With what structure does the ophthalmic artery enter the optic canal?
What circulation systems of the brain does the PCA connect?
What circulation systems of the brain does the PCA connect?
Which artery supplies the brain?
Which artery supplies the brain?
The ACA, supplies medial aspects of what lobes?
The ACA, supplies medial aspects of what lobes?
What arteries are known as being long striate arteries?
What arteries are known as being long striate arteries?
What structures does the middle cerebral artery supply?
What structures does the middle cerebral artery supply?
What artery supplies and ascends posteiorly on the insula?
What artery supplies and ascends posteiorly on the insula?
The middle cerebral artery includes what type of cortical branches?
The middle cerebral artery includes what type of cortical branches?
The temporal branches of the middle cerebral artery are distributed where?
The temporal branches of the middle cerebral artery are distributed where?
The anterior cerebral artery is supplied by what limb territories?
The anterior cerebral artery is supplied by what limb territories?
The vertebral artery provides arterial blood supply to which of the following?
The vertebral artery provides arterial blood supply to which of the following?
The vertebral artery is usually subdivided into how many segments?
The vertebral artery is usually subdivided into how many segments?
The vertebral arteries spinal branches supply what structure?
The vertebral arteries spinal branches supply what structure?
Which artery arises in a Y-shaped configuration from the two vertebral arteries?
Which artery arises in a Y-shaped configuration from the two vertebral arteries?
Which arteries run caudally on the posterolateral surface of the spinal cord?
Which arteries run caudally on the posterolateral surface of the spinal cord?
The radicular arteries pass through which structure?
The radicular arteries pass through which structure?
Into what do all vessels of both anterior and posterior radicular veins drain?
Into what do all vessels of both anterior and posterior radicular veins drain?
The internal vertebral venous plexus communicates with which veins?
The internal vertebral venous plexus communicates with which veins?
Which artery supplies arterial blood to structures found within the skull, such as the cerebral hemispheres and basal ganglia?
Which artery supplies arterial blood to structures found within the skull, such as the cerebral hemispheres and basal ganglia?
The vertebral arteries unite to form what artery?
The vertebral arteries unite to form what artery?
Which artery is encased and surrounded by small veins and the superior cervical ganglion's branches, which form the carotid plexus?
Which artery is encased and surrounded by small veins and the superior cervical ganglion's branches, which form the carotid plexus?
Which of the following arteries are connected by the posterior communicating arteries to form the Circle of Willis?
Which of the following arteries are connected by the posterior communicating arteries to form the Circle of Willis?
Blockage or rupture of vessels in the cerebral circulation primarily results in what condition?
Blockage or rupture of vessels in the cerebral circulation primarily results in what condition?
Flashcards
Nervous Tissue
Nervous Tissue
Tissue type specialized for electrical and chemical signaling throughout the body.
Neurons
Neurons
Cells that transmit electrical signals and are the functional units of the nervous system.
Glia
Glia
Support cells in the nervous system that provide structural and metabolic support to neurons.
Multipolar Neuron
Multipolar Neuron
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Bipolar Neuron
Bipolar Neuron
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Pseudounipolar Neuron
Pseudounipolar Neuron
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Axon Hillock
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Dendrites
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Soma
Soma
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Axon
Axon
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Myelin
Myelin
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Node of Ranvier
Node of Ranvier
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Oligodendrocytes
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Schwann Cell
Schwann Cell
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Ependymal cells
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Choroid Plexus
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Peripheral Nerves
Peripheral Nerves
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Epineurium
Epineurium
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Perineurium
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Endoneurium
Endoneurium
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Ganglia
Ganglia
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Satellite Cells
Satellite Cells
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Autonomic Nervous System
Autonomic Nervous System
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Sympathetic Nervous System
Sympathetic Nervous System
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Parasympathetic Nervous System
Parasympathetic Nervous System
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Neuron
Neuron
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Synapse
Synapse
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Nissl Bodies
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Neuron Cell Body
Neuron Cell Body
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Rough ER
Rough ER
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Rough ER
Rough ER
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Golgi Apparatus
Golgi Apparatus
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Neuronal Membrane
Neuronal Membrane
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Dendrites
Dendrites
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Dendritic Spines
Dendritic Spines
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Dendrite Cytoplasm
Dendrite Cytoplasm
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Axon
Axon
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Axon Hillock
Axon Hillock
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Cytoskeleton
Cytoskeleton
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Actin Filaments
Actin Filaments
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Intermediate Filaments
Intermediate Filaments
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Microtubules
Microtubules
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Axoplasmic Transport
Axoplasmic Transport
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Synaptic Vesicles
Synaptic Vesicles
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Synapses
Synapses
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Glial Cells
Glial Cells
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Astrocytes
Astrocytes
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Blood Brain Barrier (BBB)
Blood Brain Barrier (BBB)
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Ependyma
Ependyma
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Microglia
Microglia
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Fibrous Astrocytes
Fibrous Astrocytes
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Protoplasmic Astrocytes
Protoplasmic Astrocytes
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GFAP (glial fibrillary acidic protein)
GFAP (glial fibrillary acidic protein)
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What do astrocytes contain?
What do astrocytes contain?
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Homeostasis role of Astrocytes
Homeostasis role of Astrocytes
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What do astrocytes form?
What do astrocytes form?
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What has regional differences in astrocytes?
What has regional differences in astrocytes?
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Pericytes
Pericytes
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Why is the brain a privileged site?
Why is the brain a privileged site?
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What are functions of the BBB?
What are functions of the BBB?
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Function of brain endothelial cells?
Function of brain endothelial cells?
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Tight Junctions
Tight Junctions
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What are three BBB transcellular pathways?
What are three BBB transcellular pathways?
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What is Ependyma?
What is Ependyma?
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What is on the Apical membrane of Common Ependyma?
What is on the Apical membrane of Common Ependyma?
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What is purpose of the Choroid plexus?
What is purpose of the Choroid plexus?
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Location of the Spinal Cord
Location of the Spinal Cord
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Spinal Cord Function
Spinal Cord Function
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Spinal Nerve Roots
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Dorsal Root Function
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Ventral Root Function
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Spinal Cord Termination
Spinal Cord Termination
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Cauda Equina
Cauda Equina
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Intervertebral Foramina
Intervertebral Foramina
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Central Canal
Central Canal
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Gray Matter Shape
Gray Matter Shape
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Dorsal Horn Function
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Ventral Horn Function
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Lateral Horn Location
Lateral Horn Location
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Ascending Tracts Definition
Ascending Tracts Definition
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Ascending Tract Types
Ascending Tract Types
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Descending Tracts
Descending Tracts
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Lateral Corticospinal Tract
Lateral Corticospinal Tract
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Brainstem Components
Brainstem Components
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Cranial Nerve Location
Cranial Nerve Location
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Brainstem Vital Functions
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Medulla Location
Medulla Location
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Pons Features
Pons Features
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Fourth Ventricle Location
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Mesencephalon Structure
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Cranial Nerves Function
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Cranial Nerve Number
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Attachment of CNs
Attachment of CNs
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Cranial Nerve Nuclei location
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Cerebellum Location
Cerebellum Location
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Tentorium Cerebelli
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Cerebellar Peduncles
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Cerebellum Structure
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Cerebellum Function
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Midbrain
Midbrain
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Forebrain
Forebrain
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Diencephalon
Diencephalon
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Diencephalon subdivisions
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Epithalamus components
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Thalamus Walls definition
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Thalamus Functions
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Subthalamus role
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Hypothalamus Location
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Domination of Brain function
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Cerebral Hemispheres Composition
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Grey matter composition
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Sulci definition
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What is occupied by the fissure?
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Lateral Fissure Landmark
Lateral Fissure Landmark
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Peripheral Nerves Function
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Typical Peripheral Nerve
Typical Peripheral Nerve
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Peripheral Nerve Fibers
Peripheral Nerve Fibers
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Nerve Sheath Function
Nerve Sheath Function
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Cranial and Spinal Meninges
Cranial and Spinal Meninges
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Pia Mater and Endoneurium
Pia Mater and Endoneurium
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Arachnoid and Perineurium
Arachnoid and Perineurium
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Dura Mater and Epineurium
Dura Mater and Epineurium
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Wallerian degeneration
Wallerian degeneration
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Severed Nerve Proximal Portion
Severed Nerve Proximal Portion
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Distal Transection
Distal Transection
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Nissl Granules Degeneration Signs
Nissl Granules Degeneration Signs
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Cell Body Degeneration Signs
Cell Body Degeneration Signs
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Nucleus Degeneration Signs
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Regenerating Nerve Fibers
Regenerating Nerve Fibers
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Degenerative Processes
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CNS Re-establishment
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Sensorimotor Neuropathies
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Peripheral Neuropathy Causes
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Pathological Types of Neuropathies
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Spinal Nerve Fibers
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Peripheral Nerve Distribution
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Dermatome
Dermatome
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Myotome
Myotome
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Peripheral Nervous System (PNS)
Peripheral Nervous System (PNS)
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Plexuses
Plexuses
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Peripheral Ganglia
Peripheral Ganglia
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Nerve Endings Include
Nerve Endings Include
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Afferent Nerve Stimuli
Afferent Nerve Stimuli
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Nerve Fiber Function
Nerve Fiber Function
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Efferent Nerve Endings
Efferent Nerve Endings
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Motor nerve endings
Motor nerve endings
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Secretomotor Nerve Endings
Secretomotor Nerve Endings
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Types of Sensory Systems
Types of Sensory Systems
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Exteroceptors Respond To.
Exteroceptors Respond To.
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Proprioceptors Senses
Proprioceptors Senses
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Interoceptors are Sensitive To
Interoceptors are Sensitive To
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Stimulus Characteristics
Stimulus Characteristics
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Generator Potential
Generator Potential
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Combine the Stimulus
Combine the Stimulus
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Slowly Adapting Receptors
Slowly Adapting Receptors
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Rapidly Adapting Receptors
Rapidly Adapting Receptors
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Peripheral receptors Classified.
Peripheral receptors Classified.
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Cutaneous Receptors Subserve
Cutaneous Receptors Subserve
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Special Senses
Special Senses
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General Senses
General Senses
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Pain and temperature
Pain and temperature
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Proprioception
Proprioception
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Spinal Nerves
Spinal Nerves
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Trigeminal Nerve
Trigeminal Nerve
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General Sensation Pathway
General Sensation Pathway
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Primary Afferent Neuron
Primary Afferent Neuron
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Second-Order Neuron
Second-Order Neuron
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Third-Order Neuron
Third-Order Neuron
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Anterolateral System
Anterolateral System
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Spinothalamic Tract
Spinothalamic Tract
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Ventral Posterior Lateral (VPL) nucleus
Ventral Posterior Lateral (VPL) nucleus
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Dorsal Column-Medial Lemniscus Pathway
Dorsal Column-Medial Lemniscus Pathway
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Dorsal Column Nuclei
Dorsal Column Nuclei
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Medial Lemniscus
Medial Lemniscus
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Trigeminothalamic Tract
Trigeminothalamic Tract
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Thalamocortical Fibers
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Somatotopic Organization
Somatotopic Organization
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Lower Motor Neurons
Lower Motor Neurons
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Spinal Cord
Spinal Cord
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Vertebral Spinal Canal
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Medulla Oblongata
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Spinal Cord Subdivisions
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Cervical Enlargement
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Lumbar Enlargement
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Conus Medullaris
Conus Medullaris
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Filum Terminale
Filum Terminale
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Spinal Nerve Trajectory
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Dorsal and Ventral Rami
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Dorsal Ramus
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Ventral Ramus
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Dorsal Root Ganglia (DRG)
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The C1 Spinal Nerve
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Ventral Horn
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Lateral Horn
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White Matter
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Grey Matter
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Joining Fibers
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Rexed's Laminae
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Lamina I (Marginal Zone)
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Lamina II
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Laminae III & IV
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Lamina V
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Lamina VI
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Lamina VII
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Lamina VIII
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Lamina IX
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Lamina X
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Interneurons
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Spinal Interneurons
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Lissauer's Tract
Lissauer's Tract
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The Dorsal Horn
The Dorsal Horn
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Substantia Gelatinosa
Substantia Gelatinosa
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Nociception Control
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Clarke's Column
Clarke's Column
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Skeletal Muscle
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Alpha Motor Neurons to...
Alpha Motor Neurons to...
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Motor Neurons
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Direct Input
Direct Input
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The Stretch Reflex
The Stretch Reflex
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Muscles Stretch
Muscles Stretch
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Rapid Dynamic Function
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Cerebellum
Cerebellum
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Peduncle Connections
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Superior Peduncle Function
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Middle Peduncle Function
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Inferior Peduncle Function
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Cerebellar Folia
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Landmark Fissures
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Primary Fissure
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Cerebellar Cortex
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Cerebellar White Matter
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Arbor Vitae
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Cerebellar Nuclei
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Cerebellar Nuclei
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Dentate Nucleus
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Cerebellar Layers
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Spinocerebellar Tracts
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Spinocerebellar Fibers
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Dorsal spinocerebellar Tract
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Cuneocerebellar Tract
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Afferent Projections
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Pontocerebellar fibers
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Cerebellar cortex layers
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Rostral fastigial nucleus (rFN)
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Caudal fastigial nucleus (cFN)
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Dynamic ataxia
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Prosencephalon (Forebrain)
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Epithalamus
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Stria Medullaris
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Subthalamic nucleus
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Zona Incerta
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Subthalamus
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Diencephalon Location
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Infundibulum
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Mammillary Bodies
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Thalamus
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Hypothalamic Sulcus
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Massa Intermedia
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Stria Terminalis
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Thalamic Nuclei
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Thalamic Nuclei
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Thalamic Nuclei
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Thalamic Nuclei
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Internal Medullary Lamina (IML)
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Thalamocortical Connections
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Relay Nuclei
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Drugs That Potentiate Dopamine
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Continuous Nicotine
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Metathalamus
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Reticular nucleus of thalamus
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Medial / Lateral Geniculate Nuclei
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Reticular Nucleus
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The VL nucleus
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VA nucleus
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Thalamus General
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The Association Nuclei
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Medial Dorsal Nucleus
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Ventral Lateral Nucleus
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Ventral Intermediate Nucleus
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Axons Thalamic Nuclei
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Cerebral Cortex
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Cerebral Hemisphere
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Postcentral Gyrus
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Calcarine Sulcus
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Primary Auditory Cortex
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Heschl's Convolutions
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Cingulate Gyrus
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Cerebral Cortex
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Limbic System
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Association Cortex
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Frontal Lobe
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Focal Seizures
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Unilateral Lesion
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Aphasia
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Korbinian Brodmann
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Neocortex
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Allocortex
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Categories of Cortex
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Cortical Layer I
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Cortical Layer IV
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Cortical Layer V
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Cerebral Cortex
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Cerebral Cortex
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Motor Cortex
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Precentral Gyrus
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Primary Motor Cortex
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Premotor Cortex
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Frontal Eye Field
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Broca's Area
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Prefrontal Cortex
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Orbitofrontal Cortex
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Parietal Lobe
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Primary Somatosensory Cortex
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Parietal Seizures
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Temporal Lobe
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Transverse Gyri
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Primary Auditory Cortex
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Vestibular System
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Occipital Lobe
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Basal Ganglia
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Amygdala
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Nucleus Accumbens
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Basal Ganglia Functions
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Basal Ganglia Components
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Lentiform Nucleus
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Caudate Nucleus
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Striatum
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Striatum
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Putamen
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Claustrum
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Caudate Nucleus Shape
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Putamen
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Substantia Innominata
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Striatum Function
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Cerebral Cortex, Thalamus, Substantia Nigra
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Corticostriatal fibers
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Thalamostriatal Projections
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Nucleus Accumbens Input
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Basal Ganglia and Thalamic Nuclei
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Ventral Pallidum
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Addictive drugs - dopamine system
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Striatal Projections
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Medium Spiny Neurons
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Direct Pathway MSNs (dMSNs)
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Direct Pathway
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Striatal Projections
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Cholinergic Interneurons
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Indirect Pathway
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Parvalbumin Interneurons
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Globus Pallidus
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Pars Reticulata
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Medial Pallidal Efferent Fibers
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Substantia Nigra Pars Compacta
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Function of Basal Ganglia
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Direct Pathway
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Basal Ganglia Disfunction
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Parkinson's Disease
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Hemiballismus
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Hypothalamus Definition
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Hypothalamic Boundary
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Hypothalamus and 3rd Ventricle
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Hypothalamus area
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Lamina Terminalis
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Tuber Cinereum
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Parvo & Magnocellular Systems
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Integrated Visceral Responses
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Circadian Control
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Survival Behaviors
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Skeletal Muscle Regulation
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Complex Behavior
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Social Behavior Regulated
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Neural Circuit Arousal
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Homeostatic Control
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Body Temperature
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Energy Metabolism
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Reproduction Regulation
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Homeostatic Adaptations
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Interoceptor Signals
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Endocrine/Autonomic Control
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Exteroceptive Information
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Survival Instincts
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Limbic System Role
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Advanced Analysis
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Circulating Blood Signals
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Limbic Signals
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Modulated Response
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Adaptive Responses
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Addiction Pathways
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Obesity Factors
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Midsagittal Structures
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Basal Brain Structures
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Projection Neurons
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Periventricular Zone
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GnRH Neurons
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LHA role
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Posterior Involvement
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Regulation
Regulation
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Diabetes insipidus
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Anterior Spinal Artery
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Posterior Spinal Arteries
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Radicular Arteries
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Artery of Adamkiewicz
Artery of Adamkiewicz
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Spinal Cord Venous Drainage
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Posterolateral Veins
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Radicular Veins
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Spinal Cord Blood Supply Disorders
Spinal Cord Blood Supply Disorders
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Brain's Arterial Supply
Brain's Arterial Supply
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Internal Carotid Artery
Internal Carotid Artery
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Internal Carotid Location
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Internal Carotid Segments
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Cervical Part ICA
Cervical Part ICA
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Petrous Part ICA
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Cavernous Part ICA
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Cerebral Part ICA
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Ophthalmic Artery
Ophthalmic Artery
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Posterior Communicating Artery
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Anterior Choroidal Artery
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Anterior Cerebral Artery (ACA)
Anterior Cerebral Artery (ACA)
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Middle Cerebral Artery (MCA)
Middle Cerebral Artery (MCA)
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Vertebral Artery
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Vertebral Artery
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Basilar Artery
Basilar Artery
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Circle of Willis
Circle of Willis
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Posterior Communicating Artery
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Posterior Cerebral Arteries
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Perforating Arteries
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Brain's Venous Drainage
Brain's Venous Drainage
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Superficial Venous System
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Deep Venous System
Deep Venous System
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Transverse Sinus
Transverse Sinus
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Internal Jugular Vein
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Deep Cerebral Veins
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Disorders of blood supply
Disorders of blood supply
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What can lead to death?
What can lead to death?
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Study Notes
-
Arterial Supply of the Spinal Cord*
-
Longitudinal arterial vessels run the length of the spinal cord.
-
The anterior spinal artery arises in a Y-shaped configuration from the two vertebral arteries at the level of the medulla oblongata.
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This artery descends along the ventral surface of the cord in the midline.
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The paired posterior spinal arteries arise from either the vertebral arteries or the posterior inferior cerebellar arteries.
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The paired posterior spinal arteries run caudally on the posterolateral surface of the spinal cord.
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The anterior and posterior spinal arteries alone are insufficient to supply the cord below cervical levels.
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Serial reinforcement occurs by anastomosis with radicular arteries derived from segmental vessels, including the ascending cervical, intercostal, and lumbar arteries.
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Radicular Arteries*
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These arteries pass through the intervertebral foramina.
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They divide into anterior and posterior branches
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The anterior and posterior branches run with the dorsal and ventral spinal nerve roots, respectively.
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A large radicular artery, known as the great radicular artery or artery of Adamkiewicz, may arise from a lateral intercostal or lumbar artery at any level between T8 and L3.
-
Venous Drainage of the Spinal Cord*
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Six longitudinal interconnecting venous channels exist.
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These channels consist primarily of anterior and posterior spinal veins, which run in the midline. Posterolateral veins are bilaterally paired and sometimes incomplete.
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Posterolateral veins are situated near the lines of attachment of the dorsal nerve roots.
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All vessels drain via anterior and posterior radicular veins into the internal vertebral venous plexus, also known as the epidural venous plexus.
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The internal venous plexus communicates with an external vertebral venous plexus.
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The plexuses also communicate with the ascending lumbar veins and the azygos veins.
-
Disorders of the Blood Supply of the Spinal Cord*
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The blood supply of the spinal cord is most vulnerable in the thoracic region and in the ventral portion of the cord.
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Occlusion of the anterior spinal artery leads to an acute thoracic cord syndrome with paraplegia and incontinence.
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With occlusion of the anterior spinal artery, the spinothalamic modalities of pain and temperature are preferentially lost.
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The proprioceptive functions of the dorsal columns are relatively preserved after occlusion of the anterior spinal artery.
-
Vascularization of the Brain*
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Blood is supplied to the brain by two pairs of vessels: the internal carotid arteries (anterior circulation) and the vertebral arteries (posterior circulation).
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The internal carotid artery arises from the common carotid artery and enters the middle fossa of the cranial cavity through the carotid canal.
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The internal carotid artery is one of two terminal branches of the common carotid artery.
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Internal carotid arteries and their branches supply arterial blood to the cerebral hemispheres, basal ganglia, eyes, nose, nasal cavity and paranasal sinuses.
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The internal carotid arteries and their branches make up the anterior circulation system of the brain.
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The internal carotid artery originates from the site where the common carotid artery bifurcates at approximately the cervical vertebral body 4 This is called the carotid bifurcation.
-
Internal Carotid Artery – Carotid Triangle*
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The artery is found within the carotid triangle of the neck.
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The artery is at the level of the superior border of the thyroid cartilage or approximately at the third to fifth cervical vertebral levels (C3 - C5).
-
Four Subdivisions of the Internal Carotid Artery*
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The internal carotid artery is divided into four segments by the anatomical structures it crosses.
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Cervical or Extracranial Part: Goes through the neck (C1)
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Petrous Part: Travels through the petrous part of the temporal bone (C2).
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Cavernous Part: Passes through the cavernous sinus (C3).
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Cerebral or Supraclinoid Part: Located within the cranial cavity after the internal carotid artery pierces the dura mater (C4).
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Internal Carotid Artery - Cervical Part*
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The cervical part extends from its origin to the external orifice of the carotid canal.
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It ascends posteromedially to the external carotid artery and anterior to the transverse processes of the first three cervical vertebrae (C3 - C1).
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The segment travels within the carotid sheath together with the internal jugular vein and the vagus nerve (CN X).
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The cervical segment gives no branches.
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It enters the skull through the carotid canal of the petrous part of the temporal bone.
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Internal Carotid Artery - Petrous Part*
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It extends from the external orifice of the carotid canal to the site where the internal carotid artery enters the cavernous sinus.
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The petrous part is divided into a short vertical portion that curves anteriorly and medially and continues as a horizontal portion.
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The ptrous part crosses the cartilage occluding the foramen lacerum (it does not go through it) and enters the cavernous sinus.
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Initially, it is located anterior and medial to the cochlea and the tympanic cavity.
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The internal carotid artery is encircled and surrounded by small veins and branches of the superior cervical ganglion of the sympathetic trunk, forming a carotid plexus.
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The petrous part gives off several small branches, including the caroticotympanic artery and the Vidian artery. The caroticotympanic artery passes from the carotid canal to the tympanic cavity, anastomosing with the anterior tympanic branch of the maxillary artery and the stylomastoid artery of the posterior auricular artery.
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The Vidian artery (artery of the pterygoid canal) is inconsistent and may sometimes be absent.
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It travels through the pterygoid canal with the Vidian nerve and anastomoses with a branch of the maxillary artery
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It supplies the auditory tube, tympanic cavity, and upper pharynx.
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Internal Carotid Artery - Cavernous Part*
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The cavernous part travels from where the internal carotid artery enters the cavernous sinus to where it exits it.
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The internal carotid Artery ascends towards the posterior clinoid process, then deflects anteriorly flanking the body of the sphenoid bone
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The internal carotid artery curves upwards medial to the anterior clinoid process, ending at the proximal dural ring that incompletely encircles the internal carotid artery
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It then pierces the dura mater and exits through the roof of the sinus. The curve of the cavernous part is known as the carotid siphon.
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Several cranial nerves run through the cavernous sinus lateral to it, including the oculomotor nerve (CN III), trochlear nerve (CN IV), ophthalmic and maxillary divisions of the trigeminal nerve (CN V1 and CN V2), and abducens nerve (CN VI).
-
The cavernous part gives off branches that supply the trigeminal ganglion, walls of the cavernous sinus, and nerves.
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Branches of the cavernous segment include the meningohypophyseal trunk and the inferolateral trunk.
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It is accompanied by the internal carotid plexus originating from the superior cervical ganglion.
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The meningohypophyseal trunk is a small vessel that usually originates from the proximal portion of the cavernous segment.
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The meningohypophyseal trunk supplies the pituitary gland, clivus, oculomotor (CN III), trochlear (CN IV), trigeminal (CN V) and abducens (CN VI) nerves, tentorium cerebelli and adjacent dura mater.
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The inferolateral trunk or the artery of the inferior cavernous sinus arises laterally from the midportion of the cavernous segment and goes in the inferior direction.
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It travels between the trochlear nerve (CN IV) and the ophthalmic division of the mandibular nerve (CN V1) and gives off several branches.
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These branches supply the oculomotor (CN III), trochlear (CN IV), trigeminal (CN V) and abducens (CN VI) cranial nerves.
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Small capsular arteries supply the wall of the cavernous sinus.
-
Internal Carotid Artery – Intracranial/Cerebral Part*
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The final portion is the intracranial or supraclinoid part (C4).
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After the internal carotid artery leaves the cavernous sinus and pierces the dura mater, it travels between the optic nerve (CN II) medially and the oculomotor nerve (CN III) laterally.
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The artery reaches the anterior perforated substance at the medial end of the lateral sulcus.
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It bifurcates into two terminal branches: the anterior cerebral artery and the middle cerebral artery.
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Along its course, the intracranial part of the artery gives off several branches, including the ophthalmic, posterior communicating and anterior choroidal arteries.
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Ophthalmic Artery*
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This artery is the first major branch of the internal carotid artery.
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It arises right after the internal carotid artery pierces through the dura mater and exits the cavernous sinus.
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It originates medially to the anterior clinoid process of the sphenoid bone and has a relatively short intracranial course.
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It pierces the dura mater, enters the optic canal, and passes into the orbit with the optic nerve (CN II).
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Within the orbit, the ophthalmic artery goes along its medial wall, supplying the orbit and its contents, such as the eyeball, extraocular muscles and peri-ophthalmic tissue.
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Posterior Communicating Artery (PCA)*
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It originates from the posterior aspect of the internal carotid artery.
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It runs posteriorly above the oculomotor nerve (CN III) and anastomoses with the terminal branch of the basilar artery - the posterior cerebral artery.
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The PCA connects the anterior and posterior circulation systems of the brain. It participates in the formation of the circle of Willis and gives off several small branches that supply the internal capsule, third ventricle, thalamus, subthalamus, hypothalamus, optic chiasm and mammillary bodies.
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Anterior Choroidal Artery*
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This arises from the posterolateral aspect of the intracranial part of the internal carotid artery near the termination site.
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The anterior choroidal artery supplies the optic tract, the choroid plexus of the lateral ventricle, the hippocampus and some of the deep structures of the hemisphere including the internal capsule, globus pallidus and tail of the caudate nucleus.
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Terminal Branches of the Internal Carotid Artery*
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The middle cerebral artery and anterior cerebral artery are the terminal branches of the internal carotid artery.
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Anterior Cerebral Artery (ACA) and Its Branches*
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The ACA is one of the terminal branches of the internal carotid artery that supplies medial aspects of the frontal and parietal lobes of the cerebral hemispheres.
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It passes medial to the great longitudinal fissure of the cerebrum.
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The ACA winds around the genu of the corpus callosum and goes along the medial surface of the cerebral hemisphere, reaching the parietooccipital sulcus. The artery consists of A1-from the termination of the internal carotid to the junction with the anterior communicating artery; A2 - from the junction with the anterior communicating artery to the origin of the callosomarginal artery; A3 - extends from the distal origin of the callosomarginal artery, also called the pericallosal artery.
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The artery gives rise to two types of branches: cortical and central branches.
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The artery supplies the motor and somatosensory areas of the cerebral cortex, orbital gyrus, gyrus rectus, medial surface of the frontal and parietal lobes, cingulate gyrus, and the fornix.
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The central branches arise from its proximal portion and comprise the long striate arteries.
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Anterior Cerebral Artery*
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Branches ramify over the medial surface of the frontal and parietal lobe.
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The artery supplies the motor and sensory cortices for the lower limb.
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Supplies a narrow lateral band of the frontal and parietal cortices via fine terminal branches through the great longitudinal fissure.
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Middle Cerebral Artery and Its Branches*
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This artery is one of the terminal branches of the internal carotid artery.
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The middle cerebral artery supplies subcortical (central) and cortical regions of the cerebral hemispheres.
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Central branches are distributed to subcortical structures of the cerebrum. The lenticulostriate arteries supply structures as the putamen & pallidum complex, internal capsule, and caudate nucleus.
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From its origin, the artery continues into the lateral sulcus of the cerebrum and ascends posteriorly on the insula. It branches that project to the lateral aspect of the cerebral cortex supply blood to the orbital, frontal, parietal and temporal lobes. Supplies the motor and somatosensory cortices, and the auditory area of the cerebral cortex.
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Orbital branches supply the inferior frontal gyrus, as well as the lateral orbital surface of the frontal lobe.
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Frontal branches supply the precentral, middle, and inferior frontal gyri.
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Parietal branches supply the postcentral gyrus, inferior parietal lobule, and lower part of the superior parietal lobule.
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Temporal branches are distributed to the lateral surface of the temporal lobe.
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It is the largest cerebral artery and its cortical territory is the most extensive.
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Branches supply the auditory cortex and insula within the depth of the lateral fissure.
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Branches supply to structures listed so far supplied by the internal carotid system.
Arterial Supply of Brain Overview
- Its branches supply virtually the whole of the lateral surface of the frontal, parietal and temporal lobes Territory includes the primary motor and sensory cortices for the whole of the body, excluding the lower limb, as supplied by the anterior cerebral artery
- The artery passes lateraly from its origin to enter the lateral fissure within which it subdivides.
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Vertebrobasilar System*
- The vertebral artery (Latin: arteria vertebralis) is a paired artery found on each side of the neck. It provides arterial blood supply to the spinal cord, lower portion of the brainstem, posterior aspects of the cerebellum and cerebral hemispheres, and the meninges. The left vertebral artery is usually larger than the right.
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Vertebral Arteries*
- The artery is usually is subdivided into four segments based on its course.
- V1: First segment starts at the origin of the vertebral artery when it branches off the subclavian artery and travels to the transverse foramen of the sixth cervical vertebra (C6).
- V2: Second segment ascends through the transverse foramina of the sixth through second cervical vertebrae.
- V3: Third segment makes a postero-lateral turn to enter the transverse foramen of the atlas (C1) and pierces the posterior atlantooccipital membrane to enter the vertebral canal. V4: The vertebral artery pierces the dura mater and arachnoid mater, entering the cranial cavity via the foramen magnum and joins the contralateral vertebral artery to form the basilar artery.
- The vertebral artery gives off cervical and cranial brances
Vertebral Arteries - Cervical Branches
- These branches are called cervical branches, and are spinal and muscular branches
- The spinal branches supply the spinal cord via the intervertebral foramina, also suppling the bodies of the cervical vertebrae
- Muscular branches supply the deep muscles of the neck and can form anastomoses with the occipital branches of the external carotid artery.
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Vertebral Arteries - Spinal Branches*
- Within the skull, the vertebral artery usually gives off several cranial branches, including the anterior spinal artery, posterior spinal arteries, posterior inferior cerebellar artery, meningeal arteries, and medullary arteries.
- The anterior spinal artery arises close to the basilar artery from the confluence of two smaller arteries, passing within the anterior median fissure.
- This artery is the primary source that supplies arterial blood to the spinal cord
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Vertebral Arteries – Spinal and Cerebellar Branches*
- The posterior spinal arteries normally arise near the medulla oblongata and descends along the right or left posterolateral sulcus of the spinal cord.
- Posterior spinal arteries supply the posterior one-third of the spinal cord and can also arise from the posterior inferior cerebellar arteries.
- The posterior inferior cerebellar artery is a large paired artery that originates at the level of the olive of the medulla oblongata and passes upwards along the side of the medulla near the roots of CN IX-XI.
- The posterior inferior cerebellar artery courses along the inferior part of the pons and supplies the lower part of the medulla oblongata and cerebellum.
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Vertebral Arteries – Cranial Branches*
- The meningeal branches of the vertebral artery originate near the foramen magnum and supply the dura mater of the posterior cranial fossa and falx cerebelli.
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Basilar Artery*
- This artery is a single large blood vessel that is formed by the union of the two vertebral arteries.
- Originates at the mid-medullary level, ascends vertically, and divides into two terminal branches, the posterior cerebral arteries.
- It gives off several side branches, including pontine branches, labyrinthine artery, anterior inferior cerebellar artery and superior cerebellar artery.
Basilar Artery Branches
- pontine branches are small vessels that supply the pons from front and sides as it travels along the pons.
- The labyrinthine artery is a branch that sometimes arises from the lower part and supplies the vestibular apparatus and the cochlea.
- The anterior inferior cerebellar artery originates from the inferior part and supplies the inferior cerebellar surface.
- The superior cerebellar artery arises from the superior part and supplies the superior cerebellar surface, pineal body, superior medullary velum, and tela choroidea of the third ventricle.
- Thus, regions supplied by the basilar artery include the pons, structures of the inner ear, inferior and superior cerebellar surfaces, upper medulla oblongata, pineal body, superior medullary velum, and tela choroidea of the third ventricle.
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Circle of Willis*
- The circle the internal carotid and vertebral basilar systems are joined by two thin vessels, the posterior communicating arteries.
- Its completes an anastomosis of vessels on the base of the brain.
- This circle encircles the optic chiasm and the floor of the hypothalamus and midbrain as an anastomatic arrangement of vessels can compensate an obstruction or narrowing of any of the vessels that make up the circle
- the size of the communicating arteries varies between individuals.
- The nine sides consist of a short anterior communicating artery, proximal ends of an anterior anterior cerebral artery, distal of Internal Carotid Arteries and a postier cerebral artery.
- Overall the arteries from the circle of Willis provide the majority of the arterial supply to the brain
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Posterior Communicating Arteries*
- The arteries extend posteriorly from the intracranial portion of internal carotid arteries, connecting each to the ipsilateral posterior cerebral artery.
- The arteries supplies Mamillary bodies, Tuber cinereum, Optic chiasm ,Hypothalamus, Oculomotor nerve, and medial thalamic surface and wall of the 3rd ventricle
Posterior Cerebral Arteries
- the two arteries are the terminal branches of the basilar artery
- Traveling postero-laterally around the superior part of the pons, these arteries give off branches that travel to the pons, midbrain, thalamus, and choroid plexuses of the third and fourth ventricles
- Split into terminal brancs when reaches the inferior hemispheres on medial and lateral portions
- The arteries travel posteromedially supplying parietal, cuneus, precuncus and corpus callosum
- the arteries as well travel postierolatley on aspects of poster portions
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Perforating Arteries*
- Numerous arteries depart from the circle of Willis and penetrate the surface of the brain. These are known as perforating arteries and consist of two main groups:
- Anterior arteries which has a perforated actions by some traits .
- Posterior arteries which has a some trait The perfortic arteries supply large ganglion ports, thalamus and internal capsule .
-
Venous Drainage of The Brain*
- Cerebral vascular venous drainage occurs via a number of small venous channels which form cerebral veins that empty into the internal jugular vein, formed by the cerebral sinsue and blood.
- The drainage has small system on the cortex, blood come from cerebral cortex, and the drainage meets posterior or some part with those that what comes from action.
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Cerebral Venous Drainage*
- Superfical division has come to work cerebral.
- Deep division has function with some. There superical has those with location but the meet traits show on action by come
-
Vascular Superficial Veins Of the Brain*
- The superficial of it side will helps those that show plus some with help some time show. Is it about what helps so often get to that action Often traits get from parts by what helps show with trait Often has it get act out action by the place
-
Dural Venous Sinuses*
- it show some helps those often actions. Where act shows by comes act to the body but often can show on other
-
Deep Cerebral Veins*
These venous action has small traits location. Where some actions by come small areas.
-
Disorders of the Blood Supply of the Brain*
Where small get function by actions but traits can cause a stroke It will go what cause traits Stroke action help but what gets to help
-
Disorders of Blood Supply & Diseases of the Venous Sinuses*
- The process can cause issues but help or not show Stroke: A type is with hits that body and its act where, the act get helps show by what acts
Diseases of the Venous Sinuses:
- Diseases of the Venous Sinuses have come traits those sides can come to act Those that has action by sides it will what comes act
- Vein problems can arise to many that needs. Action comes the area.
- Some action it has action what it act in trait.
- The help of item it helps or not it what get body to act
- Often it can gets for the help what circuit will And action that show for where act trait sides
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