The Moral Agent: Ethics and Moral Dilemmas

Part I: The Moral Agent

• This section covers the moral act, moral dilemmas, ethics and culture, cultural relativism, and moral character development.

The Moral Act

• Humans have an innate desire to know the truth, and philosophy helps question what is considered truth.
• Philosophical inquiry questions beliefs and assumptions to understand reality.
• Philosophy studies general and fundamental issues like existence, knowledge, values, and reason.
• Philosophers question moral behaviors, asking what is good, how good differs from evil, the difference between moral and immoral, and what justice is.
• Philosophy and ethics relate to provide perspectives for understanding right from wrong.

Major Areas of Ethics

• Metaethics attempts to define the meaning of moral terms like right, good, virtue, and justice.
  • Approaches in metaethics include cognitivism, intuitionism, naturalism, and subjectivism.
• Normative ethics studies ethical actions and what is considered morally good or bad.
  • Normative ethics addresses why one should be moral and how to distinguish right from wrong, and includes consequentialism, deontological ethics, and virtue ethics.
• Ethics of religion entails beliefs and practices where people relate their lives to a supernatural force or being, like God.

Philosophical Methods of Inquiry

• Philosophy branches vary on methods of inquiry to know and understand the truth.
• Philosophical inquiry is a method aimed at realizing a clear meaning of common human issues in daily life
• Logic: Science and art of correct thinking, using methods to achieve accuracy and objectivity in explaining what makes a valid logical argument.
• Epistemology: the study of the theory of knowledge including its scope, methods, and validity.
• Metaphysics: the study of the nature of things, including what is real and apparent

Philosophical Inquiry Process

• Philosophers follow a process to explain the standards of what is morally good or bad, acknowledge the certainty or uncertainty of information, and determine/evaluate ethical behavior.
• They state the problem by identifying the problem that needs solving
• Formulate a hypothesis: Develop a tentative explanation to serve as a guide
• Draw a conclusion that is justified based on provided evidence and findings
• Report the results so researchers can verify the results and confirm their accuracy

Moral Dilemma

• A moral dilemma occurs when individuals face conflicting answers to the question "What is Right?"
• A moral dilemma is a situation with a difficult choice to be made, and it relates primarily to the Principle of Double Effect.
• Self-defense requires intent of saving one’s own life
• Self-defense may have double effect unless excessive violence used. Self-defense is only justified if double effect is present

Important Elements in Moral Decision-Making

• Actions must be morally good or indifferent.
• The agent should not positively will the bad effect, but may permit it.
• Good effect must flow at least as immediately from the action as the bad effect.
• The good effect must be sufficiently desirable to compensate for bad effect.
• Evil should not precede the good, so the end does not justify the means
• There should be a good reason for the act in its good effect
• The intention of the agent must be honest

Steps in Solving Moral Dilemmas

• Examine the actions in relation to the agent.
• Determine the consequences of the act.
• Identify the intention of the act.
• Decide in accordance with divine and natural laws.

Ethics and Culture

• Ethics (or moral philosophy) is the study of principles distinguishing right from wrong and good from bad.
• The word ethics comes from the Greek word "ethos," meaning custom or habit.
• Ethics are theoretical (concerned with moral ideals), while morals apply to their practice and varies across cultures and influences on how ethical problems are perceived

Culture

• Defined by Edward Tylor as the "complex whole" of knowledge, beliefs, art, laws, morals, and customs acquired by individuals in society.
• Culture is shared values, norms, and beliefs that shape human behaviour

Characteristics of Culture

• Culture is shared and transmitted through language and symbols.
• Culture is learned and acquired, not innate, and gained through experience.
• Culture is a social phenomenon formed through human interaction.
• Culture gratifies human needs by fulfilling basic needs.
• Culture is dynamic due to discoveries, inventions, and adaptations.
• Culture is integrated as components (values, beliefs, norms) work together as a system.

Cultural Views

• Ethnocentrism judges other cultures based on one's own cultural standards.
  • Example: Seeing eating with hands as unhygienic.
• Xenocentrism is the tendency to value other cultures more highly than one’s own.
• Culture is a shared way of life for people living together, and every culture is different and not perfect
• Cultures are equal in dignity as all humans are

Organizational Culture and Ethics

• Organizational culture is shared assumptions, values, and beliefs governing behavior in organizations.
• Shared values influence people on organization directing how they dress, and perform their jobs
• Ethical standards are explicit conduct followed by its members
• Unethical standards - practices are perpetuated in the organization when the superiors or leaders approve and support them or turn a blind eye on them.
• Natural culture refers to shared values, beliefs, customs, practices and behaviour common to that area

National Culture and Ethics

• Shared values shape individuals and organization behaviors and interacr within that society.
• It reflects how they approach moral dilemmas and make decisions.
  • example; traditions such as pagmamano, language such as pilipino/filipino and religion such as catholic

Cultural Relativism

• Cultural relativism suggests ethical norms differ from one society or culture to another.
• It implies there are no universal moral norms, so morality varies between cultures.
• Respect and tolerance are encouraged when interacting with other cultures.

Strengths of Cultural Relativism

• Cultural relativism helps avoid moral dictatorship
  • It respects diversity and the plurality of rich cultural and historical traditions.
• Cultural relativism respects the belief of different countries
  • there is no objective or valid system to judge and criticize the ,oral practices of other cultures as superior or inferior

Cultural Relativism

• Cultural relativism promotes unity and harmony among cultures
  • Promotes deeper understanding and respect which is the key to better relationships among diverse cultures

Problems of Cultural Relativism

• Cultural relativism can lead to tolerance and acceptance of social injustices and inhumane activities.
  • A rational person opposes acts despite what relativism tends to accept and tolerate because of cultural diversity.
• Cultural relativism involves rejection of higher universal or common moral standards
  • Reduces morality to customs, traditions, and cultural preferences.
• Cultural relativism makes it impossible to know about another culture
  • Impossible to fully understand and immerse oneself in a foreign culture.
• Cultural relativism creates vulnerability to racial discrimination because could lead some people to thinking culture that their culture is superior to others

Moral Character

• It refers to the qualities, dispositions, and habits that contribute to a person's ethical behavior.
• Qualities define a person's moral character, such as honesty, integrity, compassion, responsibility, fairness, and courage.
• Dispositions are the tendencies or inclinations to act in certain ways
• Habits are repeated patterns of behavior that become ingrained over time

Values

• Moral characters consistently act in accordance with values and principles, even when inconvenient/challenging
• Making ethical choices require considers consequences of actions and strive to do what's right, even if sacrificing personal gain.
• Owning up and taking responsibility require strive to make amends after one make mistakes
• Stand by your principles is honest, trustworthy and stand by while difficult.

Moral Character

• Compassion: Caring about others and showing empathy.
• Responsibility: Being accountable for your actions and taking ownership of your choices.
• Fairness: Treating everyone equally and with justice.
• Courage: Standing up for what you believe in, even when it's challenging.

3 Stages of Moral Development (Lawrence Kohlberg)

• Pre-conventional: Idea of right/wrong based on how others respond (obedience, punishment, individualism, and exchange).
• Conventional morality is the transition for selfish to mature reasoning
  • Good interpersonal relationship and maintaining the social order
• Post conventional involves preservation of life as a cost and importance of dignity
  • Focus onsocial contract and individual rights along with universal principle

Sustainable Development Goals (SDG)

• Quality Education - help one develop Critical thinking skills necessary for moral decision making and equips with framework to identify, and resolve moral dilemmmas
• Gender Equality -moral principles are applied fairly to all genders, and no to gender bias
• Reduced ingequalities whether economic, social, or political, can create environments where ethical principles are not equally applied.