Ethics: The Moral Agent & Moral Acts

Part I - The Moral Agent

• Explores key concepts in ethics and morality, including moral acts, dilemmas, the influence of culture, cultural relativism, moral character, and stages of moral development.

1.1 The Moral Act

• Humans are inherently inclined to seek truth, and philosophy's core lies in questioning accepted truths.
• Philosophical inquiry questions reality's beliefs, assumptions, and workings, forming the basis of philosophy as the study of existence, knowledge, values, and reason.
• Philosophers investigate moral behaviors, questioning the definition of good, its distinction from evil, the difference between moral and immoral, and the concept of justice.
• Philosophy and ethics have a complex relationship, and provide varied perspectives to understand the distinction between right and wrong.

Major Areas of Ethics

• Metaethics aims to define the meanings of moral terms like right, good, virtue, and justice, using approaches such as cognitivism, intuitionism, naturalism, and subjectivism.
• Normative Ethics studies ethical actions, and concerns with standards of moral judgment, exploring why people should be moral and how to discern right from wrong, and includes Consequentialism, deontological ethics, and virtue ethics
• Ethics of Religion uses beliefs and practices through people can relate their lives to a supernatural force, such as God.

Philosophical Methods of Inquiry

• Branches of philosophy varies in methods as they present different ways to know and understand the truth.
• Philosophical inquiry aims to clarify common human issues logically.

Philosophical Inquiry: Logic, Epistemology, and Metaphysics

• Logic uses correct, accurate and objective thinking to describe reasonable arguments
• Epistemology studies knowledge, scope, methods, and validity.
• Metaphysics explores the nature of reality, healing, and appearance.

Philosophical Inquiry: Process

• Philosophers determine if behavior is morally good or bad, with certainty or uncertainty, by following standard processes to evaluate ethical behaviour.
• The "Statement of the Problem" step names a dilemma to solve.
• The "Formulation of a Hypothesis" stage of the problem is a reasonable explanation.
• Conclusions must be based and justified after a drawing of evidence and establishing findings
• Reporting Results ensures accuracy and verification in research.

1.2 Moral Dilemma

• Moral dilemmas are instances where individuals grapple with conflicting answers to the question "What is Right?"
• An English Oxford Dictionary defines moral dilemma as a difficult choice that has to be made.
• Moral dilemmas relate to the Principle of Double Effect.

Self Defense Justification

• Self-defense is morally justifiable if the intention is to save one's life.
• Self-defense may have double effect.
• Self-defense is unlawful unless unnecessary violence was used.

Moral Decision-Making Elements

• The act must be either morally good or at least indifferent.
• The agent does not actively will the negative effect but allows it.
• Good influences must flow equally with the bad influence.
• Benefits should at least compensate for adverse effects

Moral Dilemma Considerations

• Evil should not precede good
• There must be a solid reason to calling on the act of good effect
• An intentions must be honest

Solving Moral Dilemmas

• Examine any actions related to the agent
• Determine subsequent consequences
• Find the intention of any action
• Decide to govern moral life by divine or natural law

1.3 Ethics and Culture

• Ethics, or moral philosophy, distinguishes right from wrong, and good from bad.
• Originating from the Greek "ethos," ethics relates to custom or habit.
• Ethics are theoretical, while morals are practical.
• Ethics fluctuates cross culture, which influences the perception of ethical problems.
• Culture is defined as the collection of knowledge, beliefs, art, laws, morals, and customs acquired by individuals in society.
• Culture involves shared values of behavior

Characteristics of Culture

• Shared and Transmitted: Culture passes through languages and different signs
• Learned and Acquired: It is acquired through experiences.
• Social Phenomenon: Shaped from human interactions.
• Gratifies Human Needs: Culture exists because it fulfills needs.
• Dynamic: Evolving through discoveries, inventions, and adaptations.
• Integrated: The components work together as a system

Cultural Views

• Ethnocentrism is judging cultures on biased cultural standards.
• Xenocentrism is a tendency to prioritizing the values of other cultures over one’s own.

Culture and Ethics

• Culture means society shares, and thrives in the same environment.
• Not every society is perfect.
• Every society is very different from others
• Each society is equal in the sense that human beings should be treated with respect.
• Organizational culture influences ethics through a system, beliefs, and other shared assumptions
• Ethical Standards conducts code that organizations should follow.
• Unethical Standards conducts unacceptable habits perpetuated either by a blind eye or superiors

Natural Culture and Ethics

• Common values are being spread through beliefs, customs, and traditions
• Traditions includes performing "pagmamano"
• Language can be pilipino or filipino.
• Religion can be catholocism
• Individuals behave through interaction by making national culture ethics that can approach decision-making when solving moral dilemmas.

1.4 Cultural Relativism

• Ethical standards differ between societies and cultures.
• Morality varies across cultures.
• Tolerance is key when interacting with various cultures.

Strengths of Cultural Relativism

• Promotes diversity across distinct cultural and historical backgrounds
• Values beliefs from a variety of different countries, and judges or criticize others below it.
• Cultural Relativism encourages stronger ties between a various of different cultures.

Problems with Cultural Relativism

• It can causes tolerance to poor injustices from activities
• Rejects higher universal standards
• It can caused isolation to other communities.
• Vulnerability to racial discrimination

Moral Character

• Refers to qualities, dispositions, and habits of social behavior
• Traits can describe honesty, integrity, compassion, responsibility, fairness, and courage
• Dispositions involves tendencies of acting in different ways

The Repeated Patterns

• Habits are repeated behaviours ingrained over time
• Someone living by their rules consistently acts in those standards, and not through tough challenges

Decision Making

• By making better ethical decision, actions that result from doing what is appropriate even by personal gain.
• Taking Accountability, and showing efforts or making amends

What is a Moral Character?

• Integrity means when it becomes difficult, someone must remain honest.
• Showing care through empathy as a sign of showing compassion
• Taking ownership when doing a choice determines responsibility
• Treating all equals and justice is fairness
• believing and standing for something great determines courage

3 Stages of Moral Development by Lawrence Kohlberg

1. Preconventional Stages

• The act of doing wrong hinges with the others.
• Obedience shows a sign of punishment.
• Individualism displays an act of exchange.

2. Conventional Morality

• Transition to mature reasoning
• Good interpersonal relationship
• Maintaining the social order

3. Post Conventional

• Respecting dignity, and understanding the preservation of life
• Importance should include a Social contract and individual rights.
• Important to practice a Universal Principle

Sustainable Development Goals (SDG)

• SDG 4: Quality Education emphasizes access vs. quality
• SDG 5: Gender Equality relates to Reproductive Rights and Moral Values
• SDG 10: Reduced Inequalities involves Migration and Inequality

SDG

• Moral actions build skills for making decisions, and helps teach people to become efficient
• It can address and distinguish the analysis of moral problems in education with clear guidance
• Basic concepts and ideals are taught through cultural context which involves ethical, moral principles
• Various perspective through morality while promoting cultural relativism
• Moral principles should be apply in fairness to all genders, and should not imply bias.
• Ethical concepts if violated must be address by reducing economics, government power or social differences.