The Link Between Status and Sexual Access

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Questions and Answers

What factor increases reputation according to the text?

Being knowledgeable about group tasks

Making donations publicly (correct)

Being high in intelligence

Being generous in private

According to the text, what is one of the keys to the evolution of leadership?

Resolving conflicts within the group

Making costly sacrifices in private

Being high in intelligence

Benefiting others in the group (correct)

What theory does the text refer to for leader-follower relations?

Intelligence-based leadership theory

Public donation theory

Conflict resolution theory

Service-for-prestige theory (correct)

According to the text, what kind of sacrifces do effective leaders signal?

Costly sacrifices for the group Signup and view all the answers

What increases when donations are made publicly according to the text?

$Reputation$ Signup and view all the answers

What do leaders usually emerge from, according to the text?

Consensus among group members about effective problem solvers Signup and view all the answers

According to the text, what is a proximate factor of evolved reputation-building strategy?

Public charity offer Signup and view all the answers

What do leaders provide to followers according to the text?

Organizational skills, intelligence, wisdom, and knowledge in relevant domains Signup and view all the answers

What do followers provide to leaders in return for the services?

Social prestige Signup and view all the answers

What theory is the service-for-prestige theory based on?

Reciprocal altruism Signup and view all the answers

What are some qualities sought in leaders according to the text?

Athletic ability, strength, skill in weapon use, and displays of courage Signup and view all the answers

What are valuable leadership qualities across wartime and peacetime contexts according to the text?

Intelligence, good social skills, oratory skills, and the ability to unify the group toward a common goal Signup and view all the answers

What quality often sought in leaders has different definitions including equity and equality?

Fairness Signup and view all the answers

According to the text, who is more likely to use the deception/manipulation tactic for getting ahead in status hierarchies?

Men Signup and view all the answers

In polygamous societies, what did higher-status men tend to have?

More wives and lower offspring mortality Signup and view all the answers

In modern cultures with legally enforced monogamy, how do high-status men have greater sexual access to more women?

Through short-term relationships, extramarital affairs, and serial marriages Signup and view all the answers

What do high-status men tend to have more of compared to low-status men?

More frequent sex, more children, and physically attractive and younger wives Signup and view all the answers

What do boys across different cultures engage in more than girls?

Rough-and-tumble play, assaults, aggression, dominance challenges, and seeking attention Signup and view all the answers

What emerges at an early age according to evidence?

Difference in dominance motivation with boys showing higher aggressiveness, competitive striving, and desire for status Signup and view all the answers

What does research on social dominance orientation (SDO) show about individuals high on this orientation?

They endorse an ideology involving the legitimacy of one group's domination over another Signup and view all the answers

What does the evidence suggest about men compared to women?

Men are generally higher in dominance or status striving compared to women. Signup and view all the answers

What historical example demonstrates that men in positions of power and status have had extravagant sexual access to women?

The Moroccan emperor Moulay Ismail the Bloodthirsty Signup and view all the answers

In which civilization did the number of women correspond closely to the status of the man?

Imperial China Signup and view all the answers

What percentage of men in former Mongolian empire populations bear a chromosomal signature characteristic of Mongol rulers?

8% Signup and view all the answers

What genetic effect has been found in Ireland related to a single ruler?

One out of every five males in northwestern Ireland is likely to be a descendant of a single ruler Signup and view all the answers

What pattern did Incan Peru have regarding the number of women kept depending on the status and rank of the man?

The emperors kept the most women Signup and view all the answers

What does the text suggest about social dominance orientation (SDO) in men and women?

Men tend to score higher on SDO scales than women, across different cultures. Signup and view all the answers

What is the evidence for a sex difference in dominance according to the text?

Men and women express their dominance through different actions. Signup and view all the answers

What did the study of 1,000 Los Angeles adults reveal about social dominance orientation (SDO)?

Men scored higher on SDO scales, consistently across culture of origin, income, education, and political ideology. Signup and view all the answers

What does the text suggest about the sex difference in motivational strength to gain dominance and status?

Men appear to score higher on attitudes endorsing getting ahead and justifying one person’s higher status than another. Signup and view all the answers

What is the evidence for a sex difference in social dominance orientation (SDO) across cultures?

The sex difference in SDO has been documented in other cultures, including notably egalitarian cultures like Sweden. Signup and view all the answers

What do the findings support regarding the evolutionary hypothesis of a sex difference in motivational strength to gain dominance and status?

The findings support the evolutionary hypothesis of a sex difference in motivational strength to gain dominance and status. Signup and view all the answers

What did evolutionary psychologist Denise Cummins propose to account for human cognitive capacities?

A dominance theory Signup and view all the answers

In what situations do men tend to engage in riskier resource-related behavior?

When being observed by others of similar status Signup and view all the answers

When are status competitions among men most intense?

When involving men of equal status Signup and view all the answers

What did early evidence in a child’s life show according to the text?

Reasoning about rights and obligations and the spontaneous adoption of strategies when reasoning about rules Signup and view all the answers

What did dominance theory propose about cognitive capacities in primates, including humans?

To thwart the primary or exclusive access to resources by those high in dominance Signup and view all the answers

What did evolutionary psychologist Denise Cummins propose about human cognitive capacities?

They have evolved prior to and separate from other types of reasoning strategies. Signup and view all the answers

What type of reasoning strategies appear to emerge early in life?

Deontic reasoning strategies Signup and view all the answers

According to Linda Mealey's study, what type of individuals were remembered more frequently by participants?

Cheaters, especially if they were low in status Signup and view all the answers

What does Paul Gilbert's theory emphasize regarding dominance?

Emotional components of dominance based on resource-holding potential (RHP) Signup and view all the answers

What does Gilbert suggest leads to differences in rank among humans?

Competition to be attended to and valued by others in the group Signup and view all the answers

What does Social Attention-Holding Potential (SAHP) refer to?

The quality and quantity of attention others pay to a particular person Signup and view all the answers

What did Cummins's study find a compelling link between?

Status and social reasoning Signup and view all the answers

What is the consequence of going up in rank according to SAHP theory?

Elation and an increase in helping Signup and view all the answers

What emotion is activated when there is a powerful signal that a person will be devalued by others in their social group?

Shame Signup and view all the answers

What is the role of social anxiety according to the text?

To motivate efforts to avoid status loss Signup and view all the answers

What do higher-status individuals tend to do more than lower-status individuals at hospital emergency wards?

Help more Signup and view all the answers

What is the consequence of winning competitive encounters according to the text?

Elevated mood and an increase in helping behavior Signup and view all the answers

What is the most likely reason for some people avoiding seeking help from others?

They believe it will reduce their perceived status Signup and view all the answers

In the study, what was the difference in how men and women rated dominant acts?

Women rated prosocial dominant acts as more socially desirable, while men rated egoistic dominant acts as more desirable Signup and view all the answers

What did Megargee's experiment reveal about leadership roles in mixed-sex pairs?

When high-dominant men were paired with low-dominant women, 90% of the men became leaders Signup and view all the answers

How do men tend to express dominance according to subsequent investigators?

Through personal ascension Signup and view all the answers

What does the study imply about the influence of women in the workplace on sex differences in dominance?

The fuller integration of women in the workplace might influence these sex differences Signup and view all the answers

What did conversations between pairs reveal about high-dominant women in Megargee's experiment?

High-dominant women were appointing their low-dominant partners to the leadership position Signup and view all the answers

What did the psychological experiment by Edwin Megargee reveal about leadership roles?

High-dominant men and women mostly assumed leadership roles in same-sex pairs, but the dynamic changed in mixed-sex pairs Signup and view all the answers

What emotion may function to motivate an individual to seek revenge on the person who caused the status loss?

Rage Signup and view all the answers

Which emotion is linked with rank and may prompt actions designed to tear down those who have more than we do?

Envy Signup and view all the answers

What might envy function to motivate us to do, according to SAHP theory?

Imitate those who have what we want Signup and view all the answers

What did Rod Stewart describe as the reason for not winning a particular music award?

"The sun shines out of his arse—a pure jazz musician, Mr. Serious who helps the Indians" Signup and view all the answers

What might hero worship and the idealization of others reflect?

Positive manifestations of the emotion of envy Signup and view all the answers

What is one of the least studied emotions in psychology but might be extraordinarily important, according to SAHP theory?

Envy Signup and view all the answers

What do women tend to envy in rivals, according to the text?

Physical attractiveness Signup and view all the answers

What is a hypothesized emotional reaction to the loss of status, according to the text?

Depression Signup and view all the answers

What motivates individuals to perform actions valued by others and advertise these achievements publicly to increase status and respect?

Pride Signup and view all the answers

What nonverbal expression symbolizes the attainment of status or dominance after winning a contest?

Standing at full height Signup and view all the answers

What characteristics indicate high dominance and status, according to the text?

Expanding the chest and not smiling much Signup and view all the answers

What do low-ranking or submissive individuals typically display, according to the text?

Bent body posture, smiling a lot, speaking softly Signup and view all the answers

What is testosterone most strongly linked with among men who also have low cortisol levels?

Dominance Signup and view all the answers

What is the consequence of going up in rank according to SAHP theory?

Increase in testosterone levels Signup and view all the answers

What do winners of contests show elevated levels of?

Testosterone Signup and view all the answers

What is closely connected with dominance and status in many species?

Testosterone Signup and view all the answers

What do high-T individuals placed in low-status conditions show impairment in?

Cognitive performance Signup and view all the answers

What do men with higher waist-to-hip ratio (WHR) and T levels tend to be perceived as?

Healthier and more dominant Signup and view all the answers

What did one researcher find about women with high T levels?

They tended to overestimate their own status Signup and view all the answers

What is the reciprocal model of causation proposed in the text?

Elevations in status appear to lead to elevations in T levels Signup and view all the answers

What does the text suggest about the links between T and dominance and status among women?

The scant research has failed to uncover the same links found among men Signup and view all the answers

What does Prozac, a commonly used drug, work by increasing in the brain?

Serotonin Signup and view all the answers

What did one study report a positive correlation between T in women and?

Levels of unprovoked violence in prisoners Signup and view all the answers

What does much less research on the links between T and dominance and status among women suggest?

The scant research has failed to uncover the same links found among men Signup and view all the answers

What is the dual meaning of 'big man' in most cultures?

Physical stature and importance Signup and view all the answers

What is the link between physical stature and social stature according to the text?

Tall individuals have advantages Signup and view all the answers

Which hormone significantly contributes to 'masculine' features in animals?

Testosterone (T) Signup and view all the answers

What do socially dominant male adolescents have greater of, according to the text?

Handgrip strength Signup and view all the answers

What do people generally prefer in leaders across diverse cultures, including contemporary America?

"Tall" leaders Signup and view all the answers

What do physically strong individuals appear more likely to attain within an organization according to the text?

Positions of status Signup and view all the answers

What is an important determinant of dominance in some species?

Size Signup and view all the answers

What do high-ranking animals often gain access to?

Key resources needed for survival and reproduction Signup and view all the answers

What theory proposes that humans have adaptations both to lead and to follow based on reciprocal exchange?

Prestige-for-service theory Signup and view all the answers

What has selection likely favored the evolution of in men compared to women?

Greater motivation for status striving Signup and view all the answers

At what age do males across cultures form hierarchies?

$3$ Signup and view all the answers

What do men tend to be higher in compared to women?

Social Dominance Orientation (SDO) Signup and view all the answers

What did McGuire and Raleigh find about the serotonin levels of vervet monkeys with high social rank compared to low-ranking monkeys?

They had almost twice as much serotonin in their blood Signup and view all the answers

What effect did being overthrown have on the serotonin levels of alpha males?

Their serotonin levels plummeted Signup and view all the answers

What did McGuire and Raleigh find about the serotonin levels of university fraternity officers compared to regular members?

Officers’ serotonin levels were 25 percent higher than those of the regular members Signup and view all the answers

In an amusing small-sample test, what did McGuire and Raleigh find about their own serotonin levels?

McGuire (the lab director) had 50 percent more serotonin than Raleigh (the research assistant) Signup and view all the answers

What neurotransmitter joins T as one of the brain chemicals responsible for mediating one’s position in the status hierarchy?

$ ext{Serotonin}$ Signup and view all the answers

What term describes the common reaction of experiencing pleasure in another’s misfortunes?

Schadenfreude Signup and view all the answers

What did Feather's study illustrate about people's reactions to the fall of tall poppies?

They often experience pleasure in another's misfortunes Signup and view all the answers

What is essential in activating submissive strategies according to the text?

Social comparison Signup and view all the answers

What do humans have an array of, including creating greater distance from the dominant individual, hiding, escaping, and remaining passive?

Submissive strategies Signup and view all the answers

What results in a plunge in prestige and the loss of access to resources linked with an elevated position?

Being ostracized from a group Signup and view all the answers

What did Lynn O’Connor and her colleagues discover linked to submissive behavior?

Two distinct motivational states Signup and view all the answers

What does sociometer theory propose self-esteem functions as?

A subjective indicator of other people's evaluations Signup and view all the answers

What does an increase in self-esteem indicate, according to the text?

An increase in the degree of social inclusion and acceptance by others Signup and view all the answers

According to the text, what does self-esteem aid in making decisions about?

Challenging and submitting to others Signup and view all the answers

What does evolutionary psychologists' interest in emotional and self-evaluative psychological mechanisms focus on?

Tracking adaptively significant dimensions of social contexts Signup and view all the answers

What is one of the correlates of dominance and status across cultures, according to the text?

All of the above Signup and view all the answers

What does sociometer theory propose self-esteem could serve as?

A motivational mechanism to improve relations with others when their respect wanes Signup and view all the answers

How did exposure to physically attractive same-sex individuals affect women's self-evaluations?

It led women to evaluate themselves as less desirable as a marriage partner Signup and view all the answers

How did men exposed to highly dominant same-sex individuals rate themselves?

Less desirable as a mating partner Signup and view all the answers

What did the link between mate value and self-esteem apply to?

Men, not women, and is reduced in committed relationships Signup and view all the answers

How do women negotiate with powerful men according to the text?

Use appeasement and courtship gestures Signup and view all the answers

What does 'deceiving down' involve according to the text?

A reduction in self-confidence to display subordination and avoid incurring wrath from dominants Signup and view all the answers

What does the term 'tall poppy' refer to according to the text?

Especially successful or distinguished individuals who may attract envious notice or hostility Signup and view all the answers

What is the significance of a 'big man' in most cultures?

Physical stature and importance Signup and view all the answers

What advantage do socially dominant male adolescents have, according to the text?

Greater handgrip strength Signup and view all the answers

What is the role of testosterone (T) in contributing to 'masculine' features in animals?

Significantly contributing to 'masculine' features in animals Signup and view all the answers

What may a dominant-looking face signal, according to the text?

Status Signup and view all the answers

What do tall men have an advantage in, as per the text?

Being hired, promoted, and elected Signup and view all the answers

What is the average testosterone level difference between men and women?

Study Notes

The Link between Status and Sexual Access

Elevated status and dominance in men can lead to greater sexual access through preferential selection by women and intrasexual domination.
Women in polygynous societies may prefer to share a high-ranking man's resources with co-wives rather than have a smaller share from a lower-ranking man.
Historical examples, such as the Moroccan emperor Moulay Ismail the Bloodthirsty, demonstrate that men in positions of power and status have had extravagant sexual access to women.
Across six civilizations over 4,000 years, high-status men consistently had access to harems and multiple women, while many poorer men could only afford one wife or none at all.
In imperial China, the number of women corresponded closely to the status of the man, with emperors and high-ranking men having access to hundreds or thousands of women.
Genetic analyses have confirmed the effects of status and power on reproductive outcomes, with 8% of men in former Mongolian empire populations bearing a chromosomal signature characteristic of Mongol rulers.
Genghis Khan, a prominent ruler, had many sons with large harems, leading to an estimated 16 million men in the region being descendants of Genghis Khan.
A similar genetic effect has been found in Ireland, where one out of every five males in northwestern Ireland is likely to be a descendant of a single ruler.
Kings, emperors, and despots throughout history have collected women in harems, demonstrating a consistent pattern of sexual access being restricted to those high in status and power.
The rich nobles in India could afford harems while many poorer men could only afford one wife or none at all.
Incan Peru also had a pattern of the number of women kept depending on the status and rank of the man, with emperors keeping the most women.
Status and rank have consistently afforded men great sexual access to women in the first recorded human civilizations, and genetic analyses have confirmed the effects of status and power on reproductive outcomes.

Sex Differences in Dominance and Leadership

The study found that men and women have different perceptions of socially desirable dominant acts.
Women tend to rate prosocial dominant acts as more socially desirable, while men tend to rate egoistic dominant acts as more desirable.
Dominant men reported performing a higher frequency of egoistic dominant acts, while dominant women performed a higher frequency of prosocial dominant acts.
A psychological experiment by Edwin Megargee revealed a sex difference in the expression of dominance in leadership situations.
Megargee's experiment involved pairs of individuals working as a team of troubleshooters and repairers under stress.
In the experiment, high-dominant men and women mostly assumed leadership roles in same-sex pairs, but the dynamic changed in mixed-sex pairs.
When high-dominant men were paired with low-dominant women, 90% of the men became leaders, while only 20% of high-dominant women assumed the leadership role in mixed-sex pairs.
Conversations between pairs revealed that high-dominant women were appointing their low-dominant partners to the leadership position.
This finding suggests that women express their dominance in a different manner than men in mixed-sex conditions.
Subsequent investigators have also found a basic sex difference in the expression of dominance.
Men tend to express dominance through personal ascension, while women tend to express dominance for group-oriented goals.
The study implies that the fuller integration of women in the workplace might influence these sex differences, a topic for future research.

Status, Prestige, and Social Dominance

Walking speed is a sex-linked status display as per the author's hypothesis.
Adolescents use both prosocial and coercive strategies to maintain dominant status.
Socially dominant male adolescents have greater handgrip strength.
"Big man" has a dual meaning in most cultures, referring to physical stature and importance.
People prefer leaders who are tall across diverse cultures, including contemporary America.
There is a link between physical and social stature, with tall individuals having advantages.
Tall men have an advantage in being hired, promoted, and elected.
Physically strong individuals are seen as more likely to attain positions of status within an organization.
Testosterone (T) is an androgen, significantly contributing to "masculine" features in animals.
Men average seven times more testosterone than women.
At puberty, male testes dramatically increase their production of testosterone.
A dominant-looking face may be a signal of status, with those having dominant-looking faces obtaining higher ranks at the military academy.

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Description

Explore the historical and biological evidence showcasing the connection between elevated status and power in men and greater sexual access to women. From imperial harems to genetic analyses, discover how status and rank have consistently influenced reproductive outcomes throughout history.