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Questions and Answers
Which part of the small intestine contains finger-like projections of mucosa that absorb dietary fats?
Which part of the small intestine contains finger-like projections of mucosa that absorb dietary fats?
The liver produces bile for carbohydrate digestion.
The liver produces bile for carbohydrate digestion.
False
What hormones are secreted by enteroendocrine cells in the small intestine?
What hormones are secreted by enteroendocrine cells in the small intestine?
secretin and cholecystokinin
The ____________ secrete their products into the duodenum via the hepatopancreatic duct.
The ____________ secrete their products into the duodenum via the hepatopancreatic duct.
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Which part of the Female Reproductive System is the main portion of the uterus?
Which part of the Female Reproductive System is the main portion of the uterus?
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What is the function of the Stratum basalis in the uterus?
What is the function of the Stratum basalis in the uterus?
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Myometrium is the outer layer of the uterus.
Myometrium is the outer layer of the uterus.
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The _________ barked. (Female Reproductive System)
The _________ barked. (Female Reproductive System)
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Match the following hormones with their classes:
Match the following hormones with their classes:
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Which two subdivisions make up the respiratory system?
Which two subdivisions make up the respiratory system?
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The nostrils are also known as the nares.
The nostrils are also known as the nares.
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What is the role of the nasal cavity in the respiratory system?
What is the role of the nasal cavity in the respiratory system?
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The anterior region of the nasal cavity is lined by skin with coarse hair, known as __________.
The anterior region of the nasal cavity is lined by skin with coarse hair, known as __________.
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Match the following structures with their respective roles:
Match the following structures with their respective roles:
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What are the two subdivisions of the Peripheral Nervous System Motor/Efferent Division?
What are the two subdivisions of the Peripheral Nervous System Motor/Efferent Division?
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The primary location for cell bodies of Postganglionic neurons in the Autonomic Nervous System is in autonomic ganglia. True or False?
The primary location for cell bodies of Postganglionic neurons in the Autonomic Nervous System is in autonomic ganglia. True or False?
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What is the area of greatest visual acuity in the eye called?
What is the area of greatest visual acuity in the eye called?
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The cochlea in the inner ear is coiled like a ______________.
The cochlea in the inner ear is coiled like a ______________.
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Which layer of the meninges contains cerebrospinal fluid in the subarachnoid space?
Which layer of the meninges contains cerebrospinal fluid in the subarachnoid space?
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The lateral fissure/sulcus separates the temporal lobe from the rest of the cerebrum.
The lateral fissure/sulcus separates the temporal lobe from the rest of the cerebrum.
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What is the primary function of the Cerebellum?
What is the primary function of the Cerebellum?
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Cerebrospinal fluid is formed from blood plasma by __________ found in ventricles.
Cerebrospinal fluid is formed from blood plasma by __________ found in ventricles.
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Match the cerebral hemisphere lobes with their functions:
Match the cerebral hemisphere lobes with their functions:
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Study Notes
Lecture 14: The Respiratory System
Structure of Respiratory System
- Two subdivisions: upper and lower respiratory system
- Upper respiratory system: nose, nasal cavity, pharynx
- Lower respiratory system: larynx, trachea, bronchial tree, lungs
The Nose
- Composed of nasal bones, cartilage, and connective and adipose tissue
- Nostrils also known as nares
The Nasal Cavity
- Roles: warm and moisten incoming air, olfaction (sense of smell), and speech (resonance chamber)
- Divided in two by nasal septum
- Anterior region: hyaline cartilage
- Posterior region: different bones
- Vestibule: anterior region lined with skin with coarse hair (stratified squamous epithelia)
- Respiratory region: posterior region lined with mucosa (ciliated pseudostratified epithelial cells)
The Nasal Cavity
- Contains nasal conchae and mucus membrane-lined meatuses (grooves)
- Increase surface area and cause incoming air to swirl
- Warms and moistens incoming air
- Lacrimal duct drains into the cavity below the inferior nasal conchae
The Olfactory Area
- Located in the roof of the nasal cavity
- Involved in the sense of smell
- Contains neurons that act as olfactory receptors
The Paranasal Sinuses
- Two each in the following bones: frontal, sphenoid, ethmoid, and maxillae
- Sinusitis: inflammation of mucous membranes of the sinuses
The Pharynx
- Nasopharynx: located posterior to the nasal cavity/internal nares
- Contains the openings to the nasal apertures and the auditory/eustachian tubes
- Contains the pharyngeal tonsil (adenoid)
- Oropharynx: located posterior to the oral cavity (between soft palate and top of epiglottis)
- Lined with stratified squamous epithelial cells
- Passageway for air and food
- Contains the palatine and lingual tonsils
- Laryngopharynx: located between the epiglottis and the opening of the larynx
- Lined with stratified squamous epithelial cells
- Passageway for air and food
The Larynx
- Passageway for air composed of 9 pieces of cartilage (all are composed of hyaline cartilage except the epiglottis)
- Thyroid cartilage: anterior wall, forms Adam's apple
- Cricoid cartilage: forms complete ring
- Epiglottis: covers glottis during swallowing, composed of elastic cartilage
- Arytenoid cartilages (2): attached to the vocal cords
- Two cuneiform and two corniculate cartilages
The Vocal Cords
- Two pairs of folds in the mucosa
- Vestibular folds (false vocal cords)
- True vocal cords (produce sound)
- The true vocal cords are located in an opening known as the glottis (covered by epiglottis during swallowing)
The Trachea
- Connects larynx to the main bronchi
- Located anterior to the esophagus
- Consists of 20 C-shaped pieces of hyaline cartilage (opening faces the esophagus)
The Bronchial Tree
- Leads from the main bronchi to the alveolar ducts
- In the lower bronchi, cartilage is replaced by smooth muscle and elastic fibers
- Epithelial cells in the upper bronchi are ciliated and pseudostratified
- Epithelial cells in the lower bronchi are non-ciliated and squamous
The Lungs
- Right and left lungs are separated by the mediastinum (containing the heart)
- Right lung: three lobes (superior, middle, and inferior lobes)
- Left lung: two lobes (superior and inferior lobes), cardiac notch where heart is
The Pleural Membrane
- Each lung is enclosed by its own double-layered pleural membrane
- Visceral pleural membrane: covers surface of the lung
- Parietal pleural membrane: attached to inner thoracic wall, diaphragm, and mediastinum
- Pleural cavity: contains pleural fluid which reduces friction and holds lungs to the walls of the thoracic cavity
The Conduction Zone
- The region from the nasal cavity to the terminal bronchioles is known as the conduction zone
- Conducts air from the environment to the respiratory zone
The Respiratory Zone
- The region from the respiratory bronchioles to the alveoli is known as the respiratory zone
- Responsible for the exchange of gases (O2/CO2) between the blood and the lungs
The Respiratory Membrane
- Consists of the walls of the alveoli and the blood vessels
- Walls of blood vessels are composed of simple squamous epithelial cells and a basement membrane
- Walls of alveoli are composed of type I and type II alveolar cells and a basement membrane
Ventilation/Breathing
- Requires two separate events: inspiration/inhalation and expiration/exhalation
- Inspiration/inhalation: intake of air into the lungs
- Expiration/exhalation: movement of air out of the lungs
Lecture 15: The Digestive System
The Mucosa
- Composed of three distinct layers: epithelium, lamina propria, and muscularis mucosae
- Epithelium: functions include protection, secretion, and absorption
- Lamina propria: connective tissue with blood and lymph vessels and MALT
- Muscularis mucosae: thin layer of muscle (makes folds in the lumen)
The Submucosa
- A layer of areolar connective tissue that serves to bind mucosa to muscularis
- Contains blood, lymphatic vessels, and nerves plexus
The Muscularis
- Two layers of smooth muscle: inner circular and outer longitudinal
- Myenteric nerve complex between layers
- Contractions cause motility (mixing and movement)
The Serosa
- Also known as the visceral peritoneum or adventitia
- Serves as the outermost covering of the organs (the esophagus lacks a serosa)
Oral Cavity
- Includes: lips, cheeks, palate, and tongue
- Palate: hard palate (2 maxillae and 2 palatine bones) and soft palate (posterior to hard palate)
- Tongue: attached to hyoid bone, skeletal muscle, projections of the mucosa (papillae = taste buds)
Salivary Glands
- Three pairs: parotid, submandibular, and sublingual
- Saliva: 99.5% water, 0.5% solutes (e.g., enzymes)
Dentition/Teeth
- Located in maxillae and mandible
- Child dentition: primary dentition/deciduous (baby) teeth
- Adult dentition: secondary dentition/permanent teeth
Tooth Structures
- Crown: above the gum
- Root: dentin and cementum overlay
- Neck: enamel and cementum boundary (gums)
Oropharynx and Laryngopharynx
- Contains only muscularis externa (skeletal muscles) and stratified squamous cells
Esophagus
- Located posterior to the trachea
- Passes through the diaphragm to the abdominal cavity
- All four histological layers in GI tract from this point on
- Muscularis externa: upper 1/3 = skeletal muscles, middle layer = smooth and skeletal, lower layer = smooth muscle
Stomach
- Four main regions: cardia, fundus, body, and pyloric region
- Converts food into chyme (food + gastric juice)
- Invaginations form gastric glands
- Rugae: folds in the mucosa and submucosa (allows expansion without tearing)
Small Intestine
- Pyloric sphincter to ileocaecal valve
- Made up of three layers
- Plicae circulares (circular folds): ridges in the mucosa and submucosa (cause chyme to spiral as it passes through)
- Villi: finger-like projections of mucosa (contain blood and lymph vessels), lymph vessels absorb dietary fats
- Microvilli: projections of the plasma membrane of absorptive cells (form what is known as the brush border)
Accessory Organs
- Pancreas: composed of head, body, and tail
- Liver: four lobes (right, left, quadrate, caudate)
- Gall bladder: muscular sac on the surface of the liver
Lecture 16: The Urinary System
The Kidneys
- Located retroperitoneally
- Right kidney lower than left kidney
- Supported and protected by three layers of connective tissue
- Renal cortex is the outermost surface
- Renal medulla divided into renal pyramids, renal columns, and the renal corpuscle
The Renal Corpuscle
- Located in the cortex
- Site of blood filtration
- ComposedHere are the study notes organized by topic:
- Male Reproductive System*
Bulbourethral Gland (Cowper glands)
- Located below prostate in urogenital diaphragm
- Secrete thick alkaline mucus to neutralize acidic urine and lubricate
- Secrete 5% of semen
Spermatogenesis
- Differentiation of spermatids = spermiogenesis
- Involves developing flagella, acrosome, and losing most of cytoplasm
Spermatozoa
- Head: contains nucleus with 23 chromosomes, acrosome with digestive enzymes
- Body (midpiece): contains large numbers of mitochondria to produce ATP for movement
- Tail (flagellum): propels sperm, made of microtubules
Semen
- Contains sperm, testicular fluid, and accessory gland secretions
- 2-5 ml released at ejaculation, pH 7.2-7.6
- Provides nutrients, protection, and transportation medium
- Female Reproductive System*
Ovaries (gonads)
- Located in pelvic cavity on lateral sides of uterus
- Histology: four layers, including superficial/germinal epithelia, tunica albuginea, ovarian cortex, and ovarian medulla
Uterine/Fallopian Tubes
- Three sections: infundibulum, ampulla, and isthmus
- Histology: three layers, including mucosa, muscularis externa, and serosa
Uterus
- Hollow organ composed of fundus, body, and cervix
- Histology: three layers, including perimetrium, myometrium, and endometrium
- Endometrium: two layers, including stratum functionalis and stratum basalis
- Oogenesis*
- 1º oocytes begin meiosis I before birth, arrested in prophase I
- LH stimulates completion of meiosis I, and 2º oocyte is formed
- Ovarian Follicles and Follicular Development*
- Primordial follicles: 1º oocyte surrounded by single layer of flat follicular cells
- Primary follicles: single layer becomes cuboidal, granulosa cells proliferate and secrete zona pellucida
- Secondary follicles: follicular cells secrete fluid, estrogen secretion begins
- Vesicular follicles: fluid-filled spaces unite to form antrum, granulosa cells surround oocyte
- Corpus luteum: follicle that remains after ovulation, produces estrogen and progesterone
- Mammary Glands*
- One per breast, modified sweat glands that produce milk
- Hormones*
- Steroids: synthesized from cholesterol, include testosterone, estrogen, and vitamin D
- Hormones derived from amino acids: include thyroxine, epinephrine, and norepinephrine
- Peptide or protein hormones: include oxytocin, antidiuretic hormone, and insulin
- Pituitary Gland*
- Suspended from hypothalamus, divided into anterior and posterior lobes
- Anterior pituitary gland: composed of epithelial tissue, regulates growth and metabolism
- Posterior pituitary gland: composed of nervous tissue, stores and secretes hormones produced by hypothalamus
- Other Endocrine Glands*
- Thyroid gland: produces thyroxine, regulates cellular metabolism
- Adrenal glands: produce cortisol, aldosterone, and epinephrine
- Pancreas: produces glucagon, insulin, and somatostatin
- Hypothalamus: produces hormones that regulate anterior pituitary gland
- Nervous System*
- Central Nervous System (CNS): brain and spinal cord
- Peripheral Nervous System (PNS): nerves that connect CNS to rest of body
- Neurons: cell body, dendrites, axon, and axon terminal
- Myelinated neurons: wrapped in layers of cell membranes from Schwann cells or oligodendrocytes
- Brain*
- Cerebrum: divided into two hemispheres, with gyri and sulci
- Cerebral cortex: 2-4 mm thick, divided into functional areas
- Cerebral white matter: tracts of myelinated neurons, including association, commissural, and projection tracts
- Brain Regions*
- Forebrain: includes cerebrum, diencephalon, and telencephalon
- Diencephalon: includes thalamus, hypothalamus, and epithalamus
- Cerebral basal nuclei: paired masses of gray matter, control skeletal muscle movement### Brain Stem
- The brain stem consists of the midbrain, pons, and medulla oblongata.
- The midbrain connects the pons and diencephalon, and contains the cerebral aqueduct.
- The anterior part of the midbrain contains the cerebral peduncle, which is a projection tract.
- The posterior part of the midbrain contains four nuclei/colliculi, known as the corpora quadrigemina.
Midbrain
- The midbrain contains two superior colliculi, which are responsible for visual reflexes.
- The midbrain also contains two inferior colliculi, which are responsible for hearing.
Pons
- The pons is located inferior to the midbrain.
- The pons contains tracts that connect the spinal cord to the brain, and tracts that connect to and from the cerebellum.
- The pons also contains the pontine respiratory center.
Medulla (Oblongata)
- The medulla is located inferior to the pons.
- The medulla ends at the foramen magnum, which is a hole in the skull.
- The medulla contains two bulges/pyramids, which are motor tracts.
- The medulla also contains vital centers, including the cardiac, vasomotor, and respiratory centers.
Brain Stem
- The midbrain, pons, and medulla are collectively known as the brain stem.
Cerebellum
- The cerebellum is located posterior to the pons and medulla.
- The cerebellum contains folds known as folia.
- The cerebellum has a cortex, which is grey matter, and arbor vitae, which is white matter.
- The cerebellum serves to coordinate skeletal muscle contractions, and is involved in maintaining balance and posture.
Limbic System
- The limbic system is a number of nuclei located in the cerebrum and diencephalon.
- The limbic system regulates emotions, such as laughing and crying.
- The limbic system also contains areas involved in memory, which can evoke emotions.
Reticular System
- The reticular system is a number of nuclei located in the brain stem, cortex, thalamus, and hypothalamus.
- The reticular system regulates alertness and attention, and filters stimuli, only sending new or unusual signals to the brain.
Spinal Cord Structure: Overview
- The spinal cord begins at the foramen magnum, which is a hole in the skull.
- The spinal cord ends at the conus medullaris, which is at the level of L1 or L2.
- Nerves continue down the vertebral foramina as the cauda equina, which is a bundle of nerves.
- Nerves exit at the intervertebral foramina.
Spinal Cord Structure: Overview
- The spinal cord has a filum terminale, which is a connective tissue extension of the pia mater.
- The filum terminale anchors the conus medullaris to the coccyx.
- The spinal cord is the location where CSF samples are taken.
Cross-Sectional Structure
- The spinal cord has an anterior median fissure and a posterior median sulcus, which separates the cord into right and left halves.
- The central canal of the spinal cord contains cerebrospinal fluid (CSF).
Cross-Sectional Structure
- The gray matter of the spinal cord contains cell bodies and dendrites of motor neurons and interneurons.
- The gray matter is shaped like a butterfly or an H.
- The cross bar of the gray matter is the gray commissure.
Cross-Sectional Structure
- Each side of the spinal cord is divided into horns.
- The dorsal horn is sensory, the lateral horn is motor, and the ventral horn is motor.
Cross-Sectional Structure
- The white matter of the spinal cord contains the myelinated axons of ascending (sensory) and descending (motor) tracts.
- The white matter forms specific columns, including the dorsal column, lateral column, and ventral column.
Spinal Cord Functions
- The spinal cord carries sensory and motor impulses to and from the brain.
- The spinal cord produces reflexes, which are fast, predictable, and autonomic responses to changes in the environment.
Peripheral Nervous System: Cranial Nerves
- There are 12 pairs of cranial nerves.
- The brain regions associated with the cranial nerves are the cerebrum, cerebellum, and brain stem.
Peripheral Nervous System: Cranial Nerves
- Two pairs of cranial nerves are only sensory, and one pair is mainly sensory.
Peripheral Nervous System: Spinal Nerves
- There are 31 pairs of spinal nerves, which are all mixed nerves.
- The spinal nerves exit via the intervertebral foramina.
- Each spinal nerve has two points of attachment to the spinal cord.
Peripheral Nervous System: Spinal Nerves
- The dorsal root of a spinal nerve is sensory, and contains cell bodies in the dorsal root ganglia.
- The ventral root of a spinal nerve is autonomic and somatic motor, and contains cell bodies in the ventral or lateral horns.
Cross-Section of Nerve
- A nerve contains many neurons with a number of connective tissue wrappings.
- The epineurium is a wrapping around the entire nerve, the perineurium is a wrapping around fascicles, and the endoneurium is a wrapping around the axon and myelin sheath.
Peripheral Nervous System: Sensory/Afferent Division
- Receptors detect changes in the environment.
- Receptors are classified by location, including exteroceptors, interoceptors, and proprioceptors.
- Receptors are also classified by type of stimulus, including mechanoreceptors, thermoreceptors, chemoreceptors, photoreceptors, and nociceptors.
Peripheral Nervous System: Sensory/Afferent Division
- The structure of receptors (general senses only) includes free nerve endings and encapsulated nerve endings.
- Free nerve endings are terminal dendrites of unipolar sensory neurons, and are associated with pain and root hair plexus.
- Encapsulated nerve endings are terminal dendrites enclosed in connective tissue, and are associated with Meissner's and Pacinian corpuscles.
Peripheral Nervous System: Sensory/Afferent Division
- A first order neuron is a unipolar neuron attached to or associated with a receptor, and may or may not be encapsulated.
- The axon of a first order neuron travels in cranial or spinal nerves to the CNS.
- The cell bodies of first order neurons are located in sensory ganglia of cranial nerves or dorsal root ganglia of the spinal cord.
Peripheral Nervous System: Motor/Efferent Division
- The CNS sends impulses to effectors through the motor/efferent division.
- The motor/efferent division is divided into somatic and autonomic subdivisions.
- The somatic subdivision is concerned with skeletal muscles, and consists of lower motor neurons.
- The autonomic subdivision is concerned with smooth muscle, cardiac muscle, and glands, and consists of two successive multipolar neurons.
Peripheral Nervous System: Motor/Efferent Division
- The autonomic subdivision is divided into sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous systems.
- The sympathetic nervous system is involved in the "fight or flight" response, and the parasympathetic nervous system is involved in promoting relaxation and reducing stress.
Nervous System Pathways/Ascending Pathway
- The ascending pathway is a sensory pathway that involves three successive neurons from the receptor to the cortex.
- The first order neuron is a receptor neuron, the second order neuron is an interneuron in the dorsal horn, and the third order neuron is an interneuron in the thalamus.
Nervous System Pathways/Ascending Pathway
- The axons of the first and second order neurons form ascending spinal tracts, including the dorsal column tract and the spinothalamic tract.
- The dorsal column tract is involved in sensations that are precisely located, and the spinothalamic tract is involved in sensations that are more diffuse.
Nervous System Pathways/Descending Pathway
- The descending pathway is a motor pathway that involves two neurons from the brain to the effector.
- The upper motor neuron is a neuron in the CNS, and the lower motor neuron is a neuron in the PNS.
The Eyes
- The eyes have a fibrous tunic, a vascular tunic, and a nervous/sensory tunic.
- The fibrous tunic includes the sclera and cornea.
- The vascular tunic includes the choroid, ciliary body, and iris.
- The nervous/sensory tunic includes the retina.
The Eyes
- The retina has an outer pigmented layer and an inner neural layer.
- The inner neural layer has three layers: photoreceptors, bipolar cells, and ganglion cells.
- The photoreceptors are rods and cones.
- The rods are sensitive to black and white, and the cones are sensitive to color.
The Ears
- The ears have an external ear, a middle ear, and an inner ear.
- The external ear includes the auricle, external auditory canal, and tympanic membrane.
- The middle ear includes the Eustachian tube, ear ossicles, and oval window.
- The inner ear includes the bony labyrinth, membranous labyrinth, and cochlea.
The Ears
- The coch
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Explore the structure and composition of the uterus, including the fundus, body, cervix, and histological layers.
