The Era of Revolution and Enlightenment

The Era of Revolution and Enlightenment

• The French aristocracy abandoned Versailles, marking the end of the monarchy and its lavish lifestyle. Aristocrats, despite representing a small percentage of the population, owned 90% of France's wealth.
• The public sphere emerged, fostering discussions among diverse social classes, transcending the boundaries of the elite. Dedicated salons, hosted mainly by wealthy women, provided private spaces for cultural exchange, often including political discourse. Freemason lodges, another elite social space, also developed, emphasizing equality.

The Moderate French Revolution (1789)

• Inspired by the American and Enlightenment ideals, the French Revolution officially began in 1789.
• France's escalating debts due to the monarchy's extravagance, wars, and a population boom necessitated new revenue streams. The King, taxing everyone except the clergy and nobility, angered these privileged classes, leading to the Estates-General assembly.
• The Estates-General, a body of delegates, suffered from a voting system favoring clergy and nobility. The Third Estate, comprising the majority of the population, felt unheard and was locked out of the voting chamber.
• The Third Estate declared themselves the National Assembly and wrote the Tennis Court Oath, establishing a new constitution.
• Resistance from the King led to the Storming of the Bastille, a symbol of royal power, as the populace sought justice. Peasant uprisings, spurred by this, culminated in the August Decrees, abolishing feudalism. The Declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizen was signed, granting power to the people and establishing a constitutional monarchy.

The Radical French Revolution

• Power struggles between nobles and the Third Estate ensued. The King and nobles attempted to overthrow the National Assembly(they were caught)
• A new faction among the Third Estate - the merchants and shopkeepers - voiced concerns about elite corruption.
• The Jacobins, dominated largely by lawyers and led by Robespierre, gained control of the government, focused on transforming the social structure.
• Declaring war on European monarchies, the Jacobins established revolutionary values. This included the abolition of slavery, free education, and standardized bread prices. This angered other monarchies that feared the same fate.
• Robespierre, facing opposition, implemented a Reign of Terror, utilizing the guillotine to execute thousands of opponents (estimated 20,000-40,000). His justification rested on maintaining order and revolutionary purity. This ultimately led to his downfall.
• The revolutionary government established an unprecedented focus on people's rights and equality. Nationalism emerged, uniting the French people.

Napoleon's Rise

• Following the Reign of Terror, Napoleon seized control of the new republic, rising through military ranks until attaining ultimate power.
• Initially tasked with an invasion of England, he chose Egypt instead. Despite losing at the Battle of the Nile, he used propaganda to maintain popular support. This was an early form of disseminating fake news.
• Ultimately crowned Emperor, although he clashed with revolutionary ideals, Napoleon cultivated stability, balancing absolutist control with citizens' needs, somewhat mirroring Augustus' rule. He gave the Catholic Church back their power but chose the clergy. He presented a written law code emphasizing equality while safeguarding his own authority. The bureaucratic government provided equal opportunities, albeit combined with a secret police force.

Enlightenment Philosophy

• Immanuel Kant argued that Enlightenment is about overcoming self-imposed immaturity through independent thought, not necessarily through revolution.
• Denis Diderot described a philosophe as someone employing reason and evidence, actively challenging the status quo, confronting institutions based on authority rather than reason.
• Furthering Enlightenment ideas, Diderot and associates used the Encyclopedia to systematically collate and disseminate knowledge. This sought to challenge traditional knowledge and foster a greater understanding of practical knowledge.

The Third Estate and Revolution

• Emmanuel Joseph's "What is the Third Estate?" critique attacked the privileges of the First and Second Estates (clergy and nobility). It portrayed the Third Estate as the foundation of France, demanding meaningful participation in governance. He advocated for abolishing feudalism and implementing a merit-based system.

Declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizen

• This declaration outlined fundamental human rights, emphasizing equality under the law, freedom from arbitrary imprisonment, and the protection of property. It further established the concept of popular sovereignty, displacing the authority of absolutist rule.

Revolutionary Nationalism

• Personal letters from a soldier to his mother highlight the evolving concept of patriotism. He demonstrates his commitment to the "La Patrie" (homeland) , marking a shift from obligation to heartfelt love of nation.

Justification of Terror

• Robespierre, in justifying terror, claimed it as a necessary measure to uphold revolutionary virtue, democracy, and ensure national security.

Art in the Classical Period

• Rococo art: Characterized by frivolity, often found challenging the more controlling aspects that the aristocracy had come to embrace. Often featuring women in leisurely settings associated with luxury and courtship.
• Neoclassical art: A reaction against Rococo extravagance. Neoclassical art, inspired by ancient Greece and Rome, sought to convey revolutionary ideals through idealized figures and scenes.
• Transculturation: Examples of artistic mingling of Eastern and Western ideas, often without recognizing the original cultures and histories.

Music of the Classical Period

• Music Genres: Classical music encompassed diverse genres including sonatas, caprices, serenades, symphonies, string quartets, and concertos.
• Sonic Characteristics: Distinctions existed in these genres regarding instrumentation, movements, intended settings, and purpose.
• Composers and Examples: Mozart was a dominant figure in symphony composition and opera