The Crimean War and European Modernization

Russia's desire for expansion into the Eastern Mediterranean, specifically from the Black Sea to the Mediterranean.

Protecting Greek Orthodox interests.

Prime Minister Cavour of the Kingdom of Sardinia.

Using military alliances (France) and warfare to consolidate power.

The creation of the Kingdom of Italy in 1861.

Economic disparity between north and south.

A power struggle between Austria and Prussia for control of Germany.

Germany was divided into many smaller countries.

Russia wanted to expand southward from the Black Sea to the Mediterranean, leading to the war.

Britain and France also desired control of the region, creating conflict with Russia.

Governments took the lead in modernizing their countries, aiming to strengthen the state and catch up with more developed nations.

Austria was excluded from a united Germany after Prussia's victory in the war.

Austria created this empire to consolidate its power after being excluded from Germany.

Prussia, with its industrial and military might, took the lead in unifying Germany.

Prussia first conquered northern Germany in 1866, later incorporating southern German states.

The German Empire was formed in 1871 with King Wilhelm I as emperor.

A federal state was established with universal male suffrage and a Reichstag, an elected assembly.

Germany implemented protectionist trade policies, restricting imports to protect its own industries.

Germany formed this alliance with Austria and Italy to isolate France and protect its interests.

The German emperor's coronation was held at the Palace of Versailles in France.

France was defeated by Germany in the war, making the coronation ceremony a symbolic display of Germany's dominance.

Prime Minister Cavour of the Kingdom of Sardinia focused on industrialization, alliances, and warfare to unify Italy.

While achieving unification, Italy remained divided economically, with the north outperforming the south.

Russia's ambition to control the area from the Black Sea to the Mediterranean Sea during the 19th century.

Russia's desire to expand south, leading to conflict with the Ottoman Empire, Britain, and France.

Prussia used its industrial and military strength to conquer and unite German states, overcoming resistance.

The Tsar, or emperor, held absolute power with no public participation in government.

Peasants were tied to the land and controlled by local lords, working the land without the ability to improve their lives.

A group of young officers attempted to overthrow the Tsarist regime, seeking an end to autocracy and serfdom.

Rejecting Western reforms, Tsar Nicholas I intensified autocracy and suppressed revolutionary movements in Russia and neighboring countries.

Russia's attempts in the 19th century to modernize its society and economy in response to internal and external pressures.

Alexander II's attempts to modernize Russia, including the emancipation of serfs, but ultimately failing due to persistent autocratic rule and social resistance.

Russia's ambition to expand its territory, particularly in the Balkans and Central Asia, which led to conflicts with European powers.

A conflict between Russia and the Ottoman Empire over control of the Black Sea region, with Britain and France supporting the Ottomans.

The treaty that ended the Crimean War, forcing Russia to neutralize the Black Sea and banning warships from navigating its waters.

A decree that freed serfs in Russia, but ultimately failed due to the lack of land and economic opportunities for peasants.

A movement in Russia advocating for peasant reforms and equality, arising from the failures of the Emancipation of Peasants Decree.

A war between Russia and the Ottoman Empire over the independence of Balkan nations, with Russia achieving victory.

A treaty that granted independence to Romania, Serbia, and Montenegro, and made بلغاريا a protectorate of Russia, but was ultimately revised by European powers.

A treaty that revised the Treaty of San Stefano, reducing Bulgaria's territory and placing Bosnia and Herzegovina under Austrian control.

Russia's shift in its expansionist policy from the Balkans to Central and East Asia, leading to conflicts with Britain and Japan.

Russia's overall modernization efforts in the 19th century were marked by slow progress, uneven implementation, and ultimately, failure.

A failed attempt by young aristocratic officers to overthrow the Tsarist regime, inspired by Western liberal ideals, seeking to end autocracy and serfdom.

A reform by Tsar Alexander II that granted freedom to peasants, but lacked land and financial resources to truly achieve independence.