Terror Management Theory (TMT) and Self-Esteem
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What is the primary objective of Terror Management Theory (TMT)?

  • To explain the human need for self-esteem (correct)
  • To explain the human fear of death
  • To explain the role of anxiety in human behavior
  • To explain the importance of cultural worldviews

    • According to TMT, what leads to awareness of vulnerability and inevitable death, causing potential for debilitating anxiety?

  • Human's emotional abilities
  • Human's physical abilities
  • Human's intellectual abilities (correct)
  • Human's social abilities

    • What is the role of self-esteem in TMT?

  • To promote social comparisons
  • To serve as a buffer against death anxiety (correct)
  • To increase anxiety and defensiveness
  • To decrease faith in one's worldview

    • What is the outcome of meeting internalized standards in TMT?

    <p>Feelings of safety and security</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the result of increasing self-esteem according to Greenberg's study?

    <p>Reduced anxiety and defensiveness</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the effect of mortality salience (MS) on worldview faith?

    <p>Increased faith in one's worldview</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the relationship between self-esteem and social comparisons?

    <p>Self-esteem is positively related to social comparisons</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the link between self-esteem and anxiety in TMT?

    <p>Self-esteem decreases anxiety</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a limitation of the Contact Hypothesis?

    <p>It only works for majority groups, and not for minority groups.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    According to the Contact Hypothesis, what is one of the necessary conditions for contact to reduce prejudice?

    <p>Support of authorities</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the name of the model that proposes that contact reduces prejudice through decategorization?

    <p>The Decategorization Model</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is one of the criticisms of the Contact Hypothesis?

    <p>The generalization of effects has been a concern.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the name of the effect that suggests contact between two groups can lead to reduced prejudice towards other ethnic minorities?

    <p>The Secondary Transfer Effect</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the correlation between contact and reduced prejudice according to Pettigrew and Tropp (2006)?

    <p>r = -.23</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is one of the limitations of the RCT design in studying intergroup conflict?

    <p>It oversimplifies the causes of intergroup conflict.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    According to the Contact Hypothesis, what is one of the necessary conditions for contact to reduce prejudice?

    <p>Common goals</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the name of the theory that assumes that conflict is always perceived as a zero-sum game?

    <p>The Intergroup Conflict Theory</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is one of the alternative explanations for how contact reduces prejudice?

    <p>All of the above</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is genocide?

    <p>An attempt to exterminate a group by creating conditions that lead to the group's destruction</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is mass killing?

    <p>Killing group members of a group without the intention to eliminate the whole group</p> Signup and view all the answers

    How many Jews were killed in the Holocaust?

    <p>6 million</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What are the three major factors that contribute to committing genocide according to Ervin Staub?

    <p>Difficult life conditions, certain cultural-societal characteristics, and a continuum of destruction</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What can happen to people when they devalue an outgroup?

    <p>They enhance their self-esteem</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What can happen when people turn against an outgroup?

    <p>They feel more in control and reduce their anxiety</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What are the cultural-societal characteristics necessary for genocide to occur?

    <p>Cultural devaluation of a subgroup, strong respect for authority, ideology, and a history of aggression</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the continuum of destruction?

    <p>The gradual increase in harm and killing towards an outgroup</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What can bystanders do to help reduce empathetic suffering?

    <p>Distance themselves from the victims</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What can bystanders do to help prop up the system and allow genocide to happen?

    <p>Benefit from the fate of the victims</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What happened to the Jewish men who were married to German women during the Holocaust?

    <p>They were defined as 'privileged persons' and freed after a week of protests.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What was the attitude of external bystanders during the Holocaust?

    <p>They were passive and accepted the violence.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is one of the alternate explanations proposed for the effects of mortality salience?

    <p>Motives for uncertainty reduction</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is stigma, as defined by Brown (2010)?

    <p>Any characteristic that marks a person for social devaluation</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a common negative experience faced by stigmatized individuals?

    <p>Verbal abuse</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is one coping strategy used by people in stigmatized groups, as suggested by Crocker and Major (1989)?

    <p>Attributing negative outcomes to prejudice of others</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the main assumption of Realistic Conflict Theory (RCT)?

    <p>People's attitudes towards ingroup and outgroup members reflect the objective interests of the ingroup</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is an example of a conflict that can be explained by Realistic Conflict Theory?

    <p>Conflict between men and women</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a criticism of Sherif's classic field experiments?

    <p>All of the above</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a consequence of attributing negative outcomes to prejudice, as suggested by Crocker et al.?

    <p>Decreased self-esteem</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a common negative outcome experienced by stigmatized individuals?

    <p>All of the above</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary function of self-esteem according to Terror Management Theory (TMT)?

    <p>To manage anxiety related to mortality</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Meeting internalized standards leads to feelings of safety and security in TMT.

    <p>True</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the result of increasing self-esteem according to Greenberg's study?

    <p>Reduced anxiety and defensiveness in response to threatening stimuli</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Terror Management Theory proposes that people are motivated to maintain a positive _______________________ because it protects them from anxiety.

    <p>self-image</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following statements is true about research on Terror Management Theory?

    <p>Mortality salience has been found to increase the need for faith in one's worldview</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Terror Management Theory proposes that humans' intellectual abilities lead to awareness of vulnerability and inevitable death.

    <p>True</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Match the following concepts with their descriptions:

    <p>Self-esteem = Related to self-serving biases and social comparisons Cultural worldviews = Provide a sense of meaning and order Mortality salience = The awareness of one's own mortality</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is one of the criticisms of Terror Management Theory?

    <p>Despite a lot of research supporting TMT, the theory does have a few criticisms.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a possible positive reaction to mortality, according to some researchers?

    <p>Motives for meaning and belonging</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Stigma always leads to negative outcomes.

    <p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a common coping strategy used by people in stigmatized groups?

    <p>Restricting comparisons to within-group members, disengaging from dimensions, and attributing negative outcomes to the prejudice of others.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Group identification has been linked to reduced _______________________, increased control, resilience, better health, and improved well-being.

    <p>depression</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is an assumption of Realistic Conflict Theory (RCT)?

    <p>Peoples attitudes towards ingroup and outgroup members reflect the objective interests of the ingroup</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Sherif's classic field experiments have been criticized for various methodological issues.

    <p>True</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a consequence of attributing negative outcomes to prejudice, as suggested by Crocker et al.?

    <p>Lower perceived control and hurt</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Match the following concepts with their definitions:

    <p>Stigma = Any characteristic that marks a person for social devaluation Social Cure = The idea that group identification can be an important source of support for stigmatized individuals Realistic Conflict Theory = The assumption that peoples attitudes towards ingroup and outgroup members reflect the objective interests of the ingroup Mortality Salience = The awareness of vulnerability and inevitable death</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Stigmatized individuals often face a range of negative experiences, including _______________________ and verbal and physical abuse.

    <p>harmful comments</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a limitation of Sherif's classic field experiments?

    <p>Methodological issues</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a limitation of the Contact Hypothesis?

    <p>It does not generalize to other outgroup members</p> Signup and view all the answers

    The Contact Hypothesis assumes that contact reduces prejudice through reduced ignorance.

    <p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the name of the effect that suggests contact between two groups can lead to reduced prejudice towards other ethnic minorities?

    <p>The Secondary Transfer Effect</p> Signup and view all the answers

    According to the Contact Hypothesis, one of the necessary conditions for contact to reduce prejudice is ______________ status.

    <p>equal</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Match the following theories with their descriptions:

    <p>Realistic Conflict Theory (RCT) = Assumes that conflict is always perceived as a zero-sum game Contact Hypothesis = Suggests that intergroup conflict can be reduced by bringing groups into contact under certain conditions Decategorization Model = Proposes that contact reduces prejudice through decategorization</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is one of the criticisms of the RCT design in studying intergroup conflict?

    <p>It oversimplifies the causes of intergroup conflict</p> Signup and view all the answers

    The Contact Hypothesis assumes that contact reduces prejudice through reduced anxiety and increased empathy.

    <p>True</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the correlation between contact and reduced prejudice according to Pettigrew and Tropp (2006)?

    <p>r = -.23</p> Signup and view all the answers

    One of the alternative explanations for how contact reduces prejudice is through ___________________ anxiety and increased empathy.

    <p>reduced</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the main objective of Social Identity Theory (SIT)?

    <p>To explain intergroup behavior and discrimination</p> Signup and view all the answers

    The Nazi regime received strong reactions from the population to their anti-Jewish measures in the early stages of the Holocaust.

    <p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the term used to describe the process of separating people into categories, leading to the formation of a 'social identity' or 'social self'?

    <p>Social categorization</p> Signup and view all the answers

    The Holocaust is an example of ______________________, which was ignored in the media, refused to bomb death camps, and refused entry to refugees.

    <p>genocide</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Match the following terms with their corresponding definitions:

    <p>Social mobility = Leaving one group to join another Social change = Finding new comparison dimensions, redefining negative attributes, or comparing with a different outgroup Social competition = Direct competition with the outgroup when status differences are seen as illegitimate or insecure</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the outcome when internal bystanders protest against the Nazi regime's anti-Jewish measures?

    <p>The men were freed and defined as 'privileged persons'</p> Signup and view all the answers

    External bystanders are usually active and intervene in situations of genocide.

    <p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the term used to describe the process of evaluating the self positively by comparing with relevant outgroups, leading to a positive social identity and self-esteem?

    <p>Social Identity Theory (SIT)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    The ______________________ predicts an inherent need to evaluate the self positively, which is achieved through comparisons with relevant outgroups.

    <p>Social Identity Theory (SIT)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is genocide?

    <p>An attempt to exterminate a group by creating conditions that lead to the group's destruction</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Mass killing is a type of genocide.

    <p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

    How many Jews were killed in the Holocaust?

    <p>6 million</p> Signup and view all the answers

    According to Ervin Staub, there are three major factors that contribute to committing genocide: difficult life conditions, certain cultural-societal characteristics, and a ______________ of destruction.

    <p>continuum</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Match the following characteristics with their descriptions:

    <p>cultural devaluation of a subgroup = Cultural devaluation of a subgroup, where a subgroup is viewed as inferior. strong respect for authority = A social hierarchy where authority is strongly respected. ideology = A set of beliefs that shape an individual's worldview. social organization = The way a society is structured and organized.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Bystanders are always passive during genocide.

    <p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What can happen when people devalue an outgroup?

    <p>They feel more anxious and disorganized.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What can bystanders do to reduce empathetic suffering?

    <p>Distance themselves from the victims</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Genocide can be impacted by the role of bystanders.

    <p>True</p> Signup and view all the answers

    The Nazi's treated everyone badly in the concentration camps to break the will of the inmates and make them easier to control, which allowed them to ______________ themselves from the inmates.

    <p>distance</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is one way that stigmatized individuals can maintain their well-being and self-esteem?

    <p>By restricting comparisons to within-group members</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What can be a consequence of attributing negative outcomes to prejudice?

    <p>Hurt and shame</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a common negative experience faced by stigmatized individuals?

    <p>All of the above</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a limitation of Realistic Conflict Theory (RCT)?

    <p>Sherif's studies have methodological issues</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a common consequence of stigma?

    <p>Low self-esteem and anger</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a coping strategy used by people in stigmatized groups?

    <p>Restricting comparisons to within-group members</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a consequence of intergroup competition?

    <p>Hostility between groups</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a criticism of Sherif's classic field experiments?

    <p>They had methodological issues</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a benefit of group identification?

    <p>Reduced depression and increased control</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a common negative outcome experienced by stigmatized individuals?

    <p>All of the above</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a limitation of the Contact Hypothesis?

    <p>It does not account for other factors influencing intergroup conflict.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the name of the effect that suggests contact between two groups can lead to reduced prejudice towards other ethnic minorities?

    <p>The Secondary Transfer Effect</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a criticism of the RCT design in studying intergroup conflict?

    <p>It oversimplifies the causes of intergroup conflict.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the correlation between contact and reduced prejudice according to Pettigrew and Tropp (2006)?

    <p>r = -.23</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is one of the necessary conditions for contact to reduce prejudice according to the Contact Hypothesis?

    <p>All of the above</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the name of the model that proposes that contact reduces prejudice through decategorization?

    <p>The Decategorization Model</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is one of the criticisms of the Contact Hypothesis?

    <p>It does not account for alternative explanations for reduced prejudice.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the name of the theory that assumes that conflict is always perceived as a zero-sum game?

    <p>Realistic Conflict Theory</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is one of the alternative explanations for how contact reduces prejudice?

    <p>All of the above</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a limitation of the studies on the Contact Hypothesis?

    <p>They were set up to confirm rather than disagree with Sherif's ideas.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the key difference between genocide and mass killing?

    <p>Genocide aims to eliminate a group, while mass killing aims to harm a group</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What were the approximate number of Jews and others killed during the Holocaust?

    <p>6 million Jews, 5 million others</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What are the three major factors that contribute to committing genocide according to Ervin Staub?

    <p>Difficult life conditions, certain cultural-societal characteristics, and a continuum of destruction</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What can happen to people when they devalue an outgroup?

    <p>They may feel more inclined to harm or discriminate against the outgroup</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What can bystanders do to reduce empathetic suffering?

    <p>Take action to help the victim</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the role of cultural devaluation of a subgroup in genocide?

    <p>It is a necessary condition for genocide to occur</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the continuum of destruction?

    <p>A gradual increase in harm and killing</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What can happen when people turn against an outgroup?

    <p>They may experience a boost in self-esteem</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What can bystanders do to prop up the system and allow genocide to happen?

    <p>Benefit from the victim's fate</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What can result from the threatening conditions that lead to genocide?

    <p>Feelings of anxiety and disorganization</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary role of cultural worldviews in Terror Management Theory?

    <p>To provide a sense of meaning and order</p> Signup and view all the answers

    According to Terror Management Theory, what is the relationship between self-esteem and anxiety?

    <p>Self-esteem protects individuals from anxiety</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the outcome of mortality salience according to research on Terror Management Theory?

    <p>Increased need for faith in one's worldview</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the significance of interactions with parents in Terror Management Theory?

    <p>They help children internalize standards and develop self-esteem</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a common criticism of Terror Management Theory?

    <p>It has limited empirical support</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the significance of self-esteem in Terror Management Theory?

    <p>It serves as a buffer against anxiety</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the outcome of increasing self-esteem according to Greenberg's study?

    <p>Decreased anxiety and defensiveness</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary motivation behind the need for self-esteem according to Terror Management Theory?

    <p>To protect individuals from anxiety</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the characteristic of internal bystanders during the Holocaust?

    <p>They were active and protested against the Nazi's anti-Jewish measures.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary goal of Social Identity Theory (SIT)?

    <p>To understand the link between social identity and intergroup discrimination.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the outcome of social categorization, according to SIT?

    <p>The formation of a positive social identity.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the criticism of SIT regarding the relationship between self-esteem and intergroup discrimination?

    <p>The relationship is too complex and nuanced.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is an example of a social change strategy, according to SIT?

    <p>Finding new comparison dimensions.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the role of external bystanders during the Holocaust?

    <p>They were passive and ignored the violence.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a consequence of comparing oneself unfavorably to an outgroup?

    <p>A negative social identity and low self-esteem.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the alternative strategy to social mobility, according to SIT?

    <p>Social change.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the critique of SIT regarding the prediction of intergroup discrimination?

    <p>It does not always predict intergroup discrimination.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the result of the protest by the German women during the Holocaust?

    <p>The men were freed and defined as 'privileged persons'.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Study Notes

    Here are the study notes in detailed bullet points:

    • Terror Management Theory (TMT)*
    • Proposed by Solomon et al. (1991) to explain the human need for self-esteem
    • Self-esteem serves as a buffer against anxiety and fear of death
    • Key aspects:
      • Intellectual abilities lead to awareness of vulnerability and inevitable death, causing anxiety
      • Cultural worldviews provide a sense of meaning and order, reducing anxiety
      • Self-esteem develops in early childhood through interactions with parents
    • Research supporting TMT:
      • Increasing self-esteem reduces anxiety and defensiveness
      • Mortality salience (MS) increases the need for faith in one's worldview
    • Criticisms of TMT:
      • Fear of death may not be a universal motivating force
      • Alternative explanations for MS effects, such as motives for uncertainty reduction, meaning, and belonging
    • Stigma and Self-Esteem*
    • Stigma defined as any characteristic that marks a person for social devaluation
    • Consequences of stigma:
      • Negative experiences, including harmful comments, exclusion, and verbal/physical abuse
      • Emotional responses, such as anger, anxiety, low self-esteem, stress, and shame
    • Coping strategies:
      • Restricting comparisons to within-group members
      • Disengaging from dimensions
      • Attributing negative outcomes to prejudice
    • The Social Cure:
      • Group identification can be an important source of support and protection
      • Reduced depression, increased control, resilience, better health, and improved well-being
    • Realistic Conflict Theory (RCT)*
    • Defined by Campbell, stating that people's attitudes towards ingroup and outgroup members reflect the objective interests of the ingroup
    • Assumptions:
      • If interests of two groups coincide, relations will be relatively harmonious
      • If there is conflict between groups, relations will become hostile
    • Evidence supporting RCT:
      • Explains various conflicts, such as those between men and women, Palestinians and Israelis, etc.
      • Economic competition linked to intergroup violence
    • Criticisms and limitations:
      • RCT oversimplifies the causes of intergroup conflict
      • Other factors, such as beliefs, culture, and individual differences, also play a role
    • Contact Hypothesis*
    • Proposed by Allport (1954) to reduce intergroup conflict by bringing groups into contact under certain conditions:
      • Equal status
      • Common goals
      • Intergroup cooperation
      • Support of authorities
      • Acquaintance or friendship potential
    • Evidence supporting the Contact Hypothesis:
      • Desegregation of the merchant marine (1948) led to more positive racial attitudes
      • Studies of white housewives in desegregated housing projects found more favorable attitudes towards integrated housing
      • Meta-analysis found a highly significant effect size across 714 independent samples and 250,000 people
    • Alternative explanations and criticisms:
      • Reduced ignorance, anxiety, and empathy as alternative explanations
      • Generalization of effects, typicality of outgroup members, and psychological processes involved in contact
    • Genocide and the Holocaust*
    • Genocide defined as an attempt to exterminate a group by creating conditions that lead to the group's destruction
    • Mass killing refers to killing group members without the intention to eliminate the whole group
    • Factors contributing to genocide:
      • Difficult life conditions
      • Cultural-societal characteristics (cultural devaluation, strong respect for authority, ideology, social organization, and history of aggression)
      • Continuum of destruction (starting with less intense harm and gradually increasing)
    • The role of bystanders:
      • People can change as a result of their actions
      • Bystanders can be internal (e.g., German women protesting the deportation of Jewish men) or external (usually passive)
      • The continuum of destruction and the role of internal and external bystanders in genocide
    • Social Identity Theory (SIT)*
    • Developed by Tajfel and Turner to explain intergroup behavior and discrimination
    • Key assumptions and processes:
      • Social categorization to simplify the complex social world
      • Social identity formation through comparisons with relevant outgroups
      • Inherent need to evaluate the self positively
    • Evidence supporting SIT:
      • Studies showing the link between social identity and intergroup discrimination
    • Criticisms and limitations:
      • Relationship between self-esteem and intergroup discrimination is more complex than initially proposed
      • SIT does not always predict intergroup discrimination as a means of enhancing self-esteem

    Terror Management Theory (TMT)

    • Proposes that people are motivated to maintain a positive self-image because self-esteem protects them from anxiety
    • According to Becker, humans' intellectual abilities lead to awareness of vulnerability and inevitable death, causing potential for debilitating anxiety
    • To manage this, people often adopt cultural worldviews that provide a sense of meaning and order, and self-esteem serves as a buffer against death anxiety
    • The link between self-esteem and protection from anxiety develops in early childhood through interactions with parents
    • Parents' love and protection can show goodness and value, which can help children internalize these standards
    • Meeting these internalized standards (self-esteem) becomes associated with feelings of safety and security

    Research Supporting TMT

    • Greenberg's study showed that increasing self-esteem reduces anxiety and defensiveness in response to threatening stimuli
    • Mortality salience (MS) has been found to increase the need for faith in one's worldview

    Criticisms of TMT

    • People have questioned whether fear of death is truly a universal motivating force
    • Others have proposed alternate explanations for MS effects, such as motives for uncertainty reduction, meaning, and belonging
    • MS can also lead to opposing effects

    Stigma and Well-being

    • Stigma is defined as any characteristic that marks a person for social devaluation
    • Stigmatised individuals often face a range of negative experiences, including harm, exclusion, and verbal and physical abuse
    • These experiences can lead to anger, anxiety, low self-esteem, stress, and shame
    • Coping strategies used by stigmatised individuals to protect themselves include restricting comparisons to within-group members, disengaging from dimensions, and attributing negative outcomes to prejudice

    The Social Cure

    • Group identification has been linked to reduced depression, increased control, resilience, better health, and improved well-being
    • Identification with groups can help individuals find ways to protect themselves

    Realistic Conflict Theory (RCT)

    • States that people's attitudes towards ingroup and outgroup members reflect the objective interests of the ingroup
    • RCT assumes that if the interests of two groups coincide, then relations between groups will be relatively harmonious
    • If there is conflict between the two groups, then relations between groups will become hostile

    Evidence Supporting RCT

    • RCT can explain various conflicts, such as those between men and women, Palestinians and Israelis, Catholics and Protestants, and racial groups
    • Economic competition has been linked to intergroup violence
    • RCT can account for historical specificity of prejudice, such as changes in attitudes towards the USSR after WWII and towards Americans before and after the Gulf War

    Criticisms and Limitations of RCT

    • Sherif's studies have been criticized for methodological issues, such as the complexity of the camp setting, experimenter involvement, and ethical concerns
    • RCT may oversimplify the causes of intergroup conflict, as other factors such as beliefs, culture, and individual differences can also play a role
    • The theory assumes that conflict is always perceived as a zero-sum game, which may not always be the case

    The Contact Hypothesis

    • Suggests that intergroup conflict can be reduced by bringing groups into contact under certain conditions, including equal status, common goals, intergroup cooperation, support of authorities, and acquaintance or friendship potential
    • Evidence supporting the contact hypothesis includes:
      • Early evidence from the desegregation of the merchant marine in 1948
      • Studies of white housewives in desegregated housing projects
      • Recent evidence from a wide variety of groups, including Chinese students in the U.S., German and Turkish school children, and various stigmatised groups
      • A meta-analysis found a highly significant effect size across 714 independent samples and 250,000 people

    Criticisms and Limitations of the Contact Hypothesis

    • The assumption that contact reduces prejudice through reduced ignorance has been questioned
    • Alternative explanations focusing on reduced anxiety and increased empathy have been proposed
    • The generalization of effects has been a concern, with some studies finding that improved attitudes towards outgroup members encountered during contact do not always extend to other outgroup members
    • The typicality of outgroup members in contact situations has been shown to be important for generalization

    Genocide and the Holocaust

    • Genocide refers to an attempt to exterminate a group by creating conditions that lead to the group's destruction
    • Mass killing is apart from genocide, and refers to killing group members of a group without the intention to eliminate the whole group
    • The Holocaust resulted in the deaths of 6 million Jews and 5 million others
    • Factors contributing to genocide include:
      • Difficult life conditions
      • Cultural-societal characteristics
      • A continuum of destruction
      • Economic, political, and cultural factors
    • The way in which we attempt to resolve this problem of genocide can cause us to turn against outgroups

    Social Identity Theory (SIT)

    • Aims to explain intergroup behavior and discrimination
    • Assumes that individuals engage in social categorization to simplify the complex social world
    • Social categorization is not neutral but occurs with respect to the self, leading to the formation of a 'social identity' or 'social self'
    • SIT predicts an inherent need to evaluate the self positively, which is achieved through comparisons with relevant outgroups
    • Comparisons favoring the ingroup lead to a positive social identity and self-esteem, while comparisons favoring the outgroup result in a negative social identity and poor self-esteem

    Evidence Supporting SIT

    • Studies provide support for SIT's predictions regarding the link between social identity and intergroup discrimination

    Criticisms and Limitations of SIT

    • The relationship between self-esteem and intergroup discrimination is more complex than initially proposed by SIT
    • SIT does not always predict intergroup discrimination as a means of enhancing self-esteem
    • The theory's predictions may not hold in all contexts, as factors such as group boundary permeability, status stability, and perceived legitimacy of status differences can influence the choice of self-esteem enhancement strategies

    Terror Management Theory (TMT)

    • Proposes that people are motivated to maintain a positive self-image because self-esteem protects them from anxiety
    • According to Becker, humans' intellectual abilities lead to awareness of vulnerability and inevitable death, causing potential for debilitating anxiety
    • To manage this, people often adopt cultural worldviews that provide a sense of meaning and order, and self-esteem serves as a buffer against death anxiety
    • The link between self-esteem and protection from anxiety develops in early childhood through interactions with parents
    • Parents' love and protection can show goodness and value, which can help children internalize these standards
    • Meeting these internalized standards (self-esteem) becomes associated with feelings of safety and security

    Research Supporting TMT

    • Greenberg's study showed that increasing self-esteem reduces anxiety and defensiveness in response to threatening stimuli
    • Mortality salience (MS) has been found to increase the need for faith in one's worldview

    Criticisms of TMT

    • People have questioned whether fear of death is truly a universal motivating force
    • Others have proposed alternate explanations for MS effects, such as motives for uncertainty reduction, meaning, and belonging
    • MS can also lead to opposing effects

    Stigma and Well-being

    • Stigma is defined as any characteristic that marks a person for social devaluation
    • Stigmatised individuals often face a range of negative experiences, including harm, exclusion, and verbal and physical abuse
    • These experiences can lead to anger, anxiety, low self-esteem, stress, and shame
    • Coping strategies used by stigmatised individuals to protect themselves include restricting comparisons to within-group members, disengaging from dimensions, and attributing negative outcomes to prejudice

    The Social Cure

    • Group identification has been linked to reduced depression, increased control, resilience, better health, and improved well-being
    • Identification with groups can help individuals find ways to protect themselves

    Realistic Conflict Theory (RCT)

    • States that people's attitudes towards ingroup and outgroup members reflect the objective interests of the ingroup
    • RCT assumes that if the interests of two groups coincide, then relations between groups will be relatively harmonious
    • If there is conflict between the two groups, then relations between groups will become hostile

    Evidence Supporting RCT

    • RCT can explain various conflicts, such as those between men and women, Palestinians and Israelis, Catholics and Protestants, and racial groups
    • Economic competition has been linked to intergroup violence
    • RCT can account for historical specificity of prejudice, such as changes in attitudes towards the USSR after WWII and towards Americans before and after the Gulf War

    Criticisms and Limitations of RCT

    • Sherif's studies have been criticized for methodological issues, such as the complexity of the camp setting, experimenter involvement, and ethical concerns
    • RCT may oversimplify the causes of intergroup conflict, as other factors such as beliefs, culture, and individual differences can also play a role
    • The theory assumes that conflict is always perceived as a zero-sum game, which may not always be the case

    The Contact Hypothesis

    • Suggests that intergroup conflict can be reduced by bringing groups into contact under certain conditions, including equal status, common goals, intergroup cooperation, support of authorities, and acquaintance or friendship potential
    • Evidence supporting the contact hypothesis includes:
      • Early evidence from the desegregation of the merchant marine in 1948
      • Studies of white housewives in desegregated housing projects
      • Recent evidence from a wide variety of groups, including Chinese students in the U.S., German and Turkish school children, and various stigmatised groups
      • A meta-analysis found a highly significant effect size across 714 independent samples and 250,000 people

    Criticisms and Limitations of the Contact Hypothesis

    • The assumption that contact reduces prejudice through reduced ignorance has been questioned
    • Alternative explanations focusing on reduced anxiety and increased empathy have been proposed
    • The generalization of effects has been a concern, with some studies finding that improved attitudes towards outgroup members encountered during contact do not always extend to other outgroup members
    • The typicality of outgroup members in contact situations has been shown to be important for generalization

    Genocide and the Holocaust

    • Genocide refers to an attempt to exterminate a group by creating conditions that lead to the group's destruction
    • Mass killing is apart from genocide, and refers to killing group members of a group without the intention to eliminate the whole group
    • The Holocaust resulted in the deaths of 6 million Jews and 5 million others
    • Factors contributing to genocide include:
      • Difficult life conditions
      • Cultural-societal characteristics
      • A continuum of destruction
      • Economic, political, and cultural factors
    • The way in which we attempt to resolve this problem of genocide can cause us to turn against outgroups

    Social Identity Theory (SIT)

    • Aims to explain intergroup behavior and discrimination
    • Assumes that individuals engage in social categorization to simplify the complex social world
    • Social categorization is not neutral but occurs with respect to the self, leading to the formation of a 'social identity' or 'social self'
    • SIT predicts an inherent need to evaluate the self positively, which is achieved through comparisons with relevant outgroups
    • Comparisons favoring the ingroup lead to a positive social identity and self-esteem, while comparisons favoring the outgroup result in a negative social identity and poor self-esteem

    Evidence Supporting SIT

    • Studies provide support for SIT's predictions regarding the link between social identity and intergroup discrimination

    Criticisms and Limitations of SIT

    • The relationship between self-esteem and intergroup discrimination is more complex than initially proposed by SIT
    • SIT does not always predict intergroup discrimination as a means of enhancing self-esteem
    • The theory's predictions may not hold in all contexts, as factors such as group boundary permeability, status stability, and perceived legitimacy of status differences can influence the choice of self-esteem enhancement strategies

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    Description

    Evaluate the key aspects of Terror Management Theory, its evidence, and criticisms, and understand the importance of self-esteem in psychological and behavioral outcomes.

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