Technological Innovations in Navigation (1450-1750)

The introduction of crops and livestock from the Americas to Afro-Eurasia, and vice versa, led to increased food diversity and improved nutrition.

The Portuguese ruler, Prince Henry, was a key figure in promoting navigation and exploration, leading to the establishment of European trading posts in Africa.

African city-states benefited economically from the slave trade, which saw them selling enslaved individuals to Europeans in exchange for goods like gunpowder and cannons.

Ming China and Tokugawa Japan implemented policies to limit European influence and trade, adopting a more isolationist stance.

The Ming Dynasty's isolationist policy was driven by a desire to maintain stability and control over China's trade and resources.

The Tokugawa Shogunate in Japan, seeking to consolidate power and prevent external threats, opted for a policy of isolationism.

The European trading posts in Africa established in the late 15th century signaled the beginning of a new era of global trade and interaction.

The establishment of European trading posts in Africa resulted in a complex interplay of political, economic, and cultural influences, shaping the destinies of both continents in significant ways.

The Dutch East India Company played a significant role in global trade during the 16th to 18th centuries. Their influence extended to various regions, establishing trading posts and shaping the dynamics of commerce.

The French were actively involved in exploration and colonization, establishing a presence in the Western Hemisphere and acquiring resources. Their influence in India was centered in Pondicherry, a major trading hub.

The Seven Years' War (1756-1763) was a global conflict involving major European powers, including France and Great Britain. This war resulted in significant power shifts, with Britain gaining dominance in India.

The British East India Company established a strong commercial relationship with the Mughal Empire in the 17th century. They used trading routes, colonies, and naval power to build and expand their empire.

The Asante Empire's participation in trading networks in the 17th and 18th centuries contributed to their growing power and influence in West Africa. Trade with European powers provided them with valuable resources and expanded their control.

The Kingdom of the Kongo's trade connections with European powers also increased their influence within the region during the 17th and 18th centuries. These trading relationships brought both benefits and challenges.

From 1450 to 1750, economic and labor systems exhibited continuities in terms of trade, resource extraction, and the exploitation of labor. This period saw the development and expansion of existing systems, with variations based on regional contexts.

The process of empires and kingdoms expanding their control over territory and resources, which often led to resistance from local groups who were resisting the growth of state power.

This refers to a type of resistance against the expansion and centralisation of state power from groups at a local level. These groups might resist changes to their way of life or loss of autonomy.

A significant uprising of Pueblo people in the Southwest of North America against Spanish colonial rule. It was a struggle for independence and self-determination.

A series of rebellions in France during the 17th century that were a backlash against the French monarchy, challenging its authority. They protested against the crown's expansion of power and taxation.

Rebellions by Cossack groups, especially in Russia. The Cossacks were semi-nomadic peoples who often fought for their autonomy and against the growing power of the Russian state.

A conflict between the Maratha Empire and the Mughal Empire in India. The Marathas were a powerful Hindu group that challenged Mughal dominance in the 18th century.

Also known as King Philip’s War, this was a major conflict between English colonists in New England and the Wampanoag people led by Metacom, also known as King Philip. It was a struggle for autonomy and survival.

Enslaved people in the Americas resisted their condition through many acts of defiance and rebellion, which challenged the existing power structures of slavery. It was a struggle for freedom and dignity.

The expansion of global trade, the rise of diverse economic activities like agriculture and shipbuilding, and the adoption of mercantilism.

Colonial economies relied heavily on agriculture, existing labor systems, and trade. They often utilized existing labor laws, like the Incan mit'a, and introduced new systems like chattel slavery and indentured servitude.

The mit'a system required natives to work on state projects in exchange for a small payment. It was exploited by the Spanish to extract labor for mining and agriculture without providing proper support.

A form of forced labor where people were legally bound to work for a period of time in exchange for a passage to a new land or other benefits. After completing their term they were usually granted freedom.

A system of labor where people were considered property and could be bought and sold. It was primarily used on plantations in the Americas to produce crops like sugar, tobacco, and cotton.

The demand for chattel slavery was driven by the rise of plantations producing crops like cotton, sugar, and tobacco. These crops required large amounts of labor and were in high demand in Europe.

A system where the Spanish crown granted land to settlers, who then had the right to demand labor from the indigenous population. These settlers often exploited the natives for their benefit and wealth.

A system where large estates, called haciendas, were controlled by wealthy landowners. These haciendas typically employed indigenous people for a small wage, often with harsh working conditions.

The use of existing trade networks in the Indian Ocean, including Swahili Arabs, Gujaratis, and Javanese, continued to flourish during this period.

Some labor laws from the feudal system persisted in the Americas, such as those regulating the relationship between landowners and laborers.

The growing demand for raw materials and finished goods worldwide led to an increased need for labor, which spurred the growth of traditional agriculture, plantation expansion, and the intensification of the transatlantic slave trade.

The increased interaction and exchange between different regions of the world, driven by trade and exploration, led to the rise of powerful maritime empires, influencing and being influenced by diverse populations.

The growth of global trade and interactions, driven by technological advancements, led to economic competition and disputes among European states, which often resulted in conflicts.

Technological advancements, such as improved shipbuilding, navigation tools, and the printing press, enabled longer voyages, facilitated communication, and bolstered economic growth, revolutionizing trade and travel patterns.

The Silk Road, trans-Saharan trade routes, and the Indian Ocean trade network all played a crucial role in linking different regions and cultures together, facilitating the exchange of goods and ideas.

The invention and adoption of new technologies, such as gunpowder, the printing press, and improvements in shipbuilding, contributed to the growth of maritime empires, facilitated trade, and enabled the expansion of European influence.

The development of new trade routes and the expansion of maritime empires led to the increased exploitation of resources, both within and outside of Europe, creating new economic and social hierarchies.

The integration of diverse populations into empires resulted in cultural exchange, syncretism, and the emergence of new cultural identities, shaped by interaction and conflict.

The Ottoman Empire practiced a policy of granting land in exchange for military service to Turkish soldiers. The land ownership, known as a 'timar', was given to the soldiers for their loyalty, and the land was used for providing resources for their military service. This system aimed to create a loyal and efficient military force, and it also helped to strengthen the Ottoman state's control over its vast territories.

They were the nobility class in Russia, holding significant political and social power. These nobles were granted land by the Tsar and were responsible for providing military service and maintaining order in the countryside. This arrangement gave the boyars influence in government and society.

The European nobility held a lot of power and privilege during the late 1400s and 1700s. They owned large tracts of land, controlled vast wealth, and held influential positions in government and society. This control allowed them to influence the decisions of monarchs and to maintain their privileged place in society.

European exploration, fueled by a desire for new trade routes and wealth, impacted the world greatly. This led to the exchange of crops, animals, diseases, and technology between continents, resulting in significant changes in global economies and societies. The Columbian Exchange, which involved the transfer of crops and livestock, significantly improved food diversity and nutrition in different parts of the world.

The Ming Dynasty aimed to maintain stability and control over its resources, so they implemented policies limiting foreign influence and trade. This period reflected a desire for self-sufficiency and to avoid the potential disruptions of extensive global trade.

The Casta system reflected the social hierarchy based on race and ancestry in colonial Spanish America. It was a system of classification that placed Europeans at the top, followed by people of mixed ancestry in various categories, and Indigenous people and enslaved Africans at the bottom. This system enforced a rigid social order, with differing privileges and opportunities based on one's racial heritage.

As global economic opportunities expanded, new political and economic elites emerged in various parts of the world. In China, the rise of the Qing Dynasty saw the emergence of new elites, while in the Americas, the Casta system created a complex social hierarchy with new groups vying for power. The rise of these new elites challenged the influence of existing power structures, leading to shifts in political and economic control.

The power of established elites fluctuated as they confronted new challenges. Monarchs and leaders gained more power due to the expansion of trade and the rise of centralized states, leading to elites struggling to retain their influence. For example, Ottoman Timars, Russian Boyars, and European nobility faced challenges maintaining control as monarchs consolidated power.