تاريخ العلوم عند العرب

• General introduction to the history of science among Arabs
• Focuses on the translation movement and its role in conveying some sciences to the Arabs

Translation Movement

• The main phases, types, and factors that contributed to its prosperity

Translation Schools

• Alexandria
• Antioch
• Nisibis
• Al-Ruha
• Harran
• Gundeshapur
• House of Wisdom in Baghdad
• The results of the translation movement

Traditional or Religious Sciences

• The science of readings
• Interpretation
• Grammar
• Theology

Intellectual or Foreign Sciences

• Medicine
• Pharmacy
• Mathematics
• Astronomy
• Chemistry
• Physics
• Music
• History and Geography

Pathways for the Transmission of Arabic Sciences to Europe

• Al-Andalus
• Sicily and southern Italy
• The Crusades

Factors Contributing to the Decline of Arab-Islamic Civilization

• Important sources and references for studying this topic

General Introduction to the History of Science Among Arabs

• The study of the history of science among Arabs begins with the emergence of the Islamic call in the Arabian Peninsula around 610 AD
• This was when divine revelation descended upon the Arab Prophet Muhammad urging Muslims to read and seek knowledge
• Islam unleashed latent energies, resulting in the establishment of one of the largest empires in the world
• Muslims were no longer confined to their peninsula, initiating attempts to liberate Arab lands from Persian and Roman control
• This began with Abu Bakr and Umar, expanding Islamic borders to include the Levant and Mesopotamia, and Egypt and Tripoli
• During the time of al-Walid ibn Abd al-Malik, the Islamic state expanded across North Africa, parts of France, Persia, Sindh, and Transoxiana
• These Islamic conquests led to an expansion of the Arab community, extending from the Ocean to the Gulf

Arab Muslim Expansion

• Preceded by multiple migrations from the Arabian Peninsula to the Fertile Crescent and North Africa
• Arab Muslim consolidation achieved linguistic unity under the Quran's Arabic, combining heritage and civilization
• Transformation of North Africa and West Asia led to Arabization and conversion to Islam
• The regions became extensions of the Arabian Peninsula, the birthplace of revelation and the starting point of the call and conquests
• The Muslim Arabs formed a distinct elite within their empire, especially in newly founded cities
• Policies of integration and intermarriage ensured that Islamic society prioritized equality over elite dominance

Islamic Civilization

• Submission to God and faith in Prophet Muhammad was at the core
• United diverse peoples through Islam and Arabic language
• Advanced civilization and empire building
• This expansion led to the integration of Arabs and their cultures in newly opened lands
• Non-Arabs adopted Islam willingly after the removal of restrictions
• This spurred a need to learn Arabic, leading to efforts to teach the Islamic religion and the Arabic language

Arab Muslims Contributions

• Shared their holy book (Quran), around which many studies were based
• They did not disparage or destroy other books but rather cared for, grew, developed, and preserved them
• They built places for their preservation, known as "treasure troves of books" or libraries
• Main characteristics of Islamic civilization is its love of books
• Disseminating knowledge via books, supporting libraries and making them available to all

Ancient Civilizations Contacted by Arab Muslims

• The cultural and civilizational heritage left by earlier Arab civilizations in the Arabian Peninsula and the Fertile Crescent
• The Byzantine Roman Empire
• The Persian Empire
• The intellectual heritage of Greece

Initial Arab Muslim Disinterest Translation of Sciences

• Arabs concentrated their efforts on consolidating their language and religion
• They had pride in the Holy Quran and the upright Arabic language
• There was avoidance of foreign sciences and languages, perceiving them as foundations of previous pagan or distorted religions, including Judaism and Christianity
• Muslims were keen on the uniqueness of God's book as a book of knowledge, science, and religion
• They didn't want other sciences to be added to avoid it being distorted or falsified by groups critical of Islam
• There was a determination to continue Islamic conquests, especially concerning the capture of Constantinople, as prophesied in the Quran and hadiths
• Internal divisions and conflicts among the Arab Muslims continued
• The Umayyads focused their efforts on consolidating the administrative order of the state and constructing its urban features

Phases of the Translation Period

• Political conditions stabilized and they began to adapt to the previous cultures they had inherited
• Increased integration of cultures
• Accelerated the production of books on practical and philosophical subjects in Arabic

First Phase: Translation in the Umayyad Era

• The Umayyad era represents the first phase of the translation movement
• This phase saw the emergence of this movement for the first time in Islamic cultural and civilizational history
• Khaled bin Yazid of the Umayyad Dynasty, displayed an interest in translation at this time
• He commissioned scholars from Alexandria to translate books on chemistry
• Some limited works in medicine and pharmacology were translated for Caliph Umar bin Abdul Aziz

Defining Characteristics of the First Phase

• Weak interest in the translation movement
• Limited languages translated from (Greek, Syriac, and Coptic)
• Limited volumes of translated works
• Focus on certain natural sciences like chemistry and medicine

Second Phase: Translation in the Era of Al-Mansur and Harun Al-Rashid

• Translation during this period was associated with the Abbasid caliphs Abu Jaafar Al-Mansur and Harun Al-Rashid
• Many books were translated, carried out by independent writers and translators
• Abdullah bin al-Muqaffa and Al-Fadl bin Sahl were famous translators in this era
• This period saw the translation of various books on stars, mathematics, medicine, and philosophy

Third Phase: Translation in the Time of Al-Mamun

• The translation reached its peak during (198-218 AH / 813-833 AD) - the era of Al-Mamun
• The translation movement in this period was centered in the scientific academy founded by Al-Mamun in Baghdad
• Al-Mamun followed his father's policy in directing invasions towards cities containing great treasures of manuscripts
• Al-Mamun also sent missions to the kings of Rome in Constantinople, Sicily and Cyprus, requesting them to send what they had of Greek manuscripts

Importance of the Third Phase

• The scholars translate into Arabic from Greek, Persian, Indian languages, etc.
• Various books were translated in this round
• Among the most famous narrators who emerged in this round were Hunayn bin Ishaq al-Abadi, Yuhanna bin Masawayh, Yaqob bin Ishaq al-Kindi, and Omar bin al-Farkhan al-Tabari

Distinctive features of the second phase

• The interest has gone beyond this role to some families and individuals
• Increased amount of translated material compared to the first round
• Comprehensiveness of translation for all types of foreign scientific and philosophical knowledge to the same extent
• The Abbasid capital "Baghdad" became the main haven for people of science and knowledge
• Traveling and moving to ask for science from the homelands that were famous for it were among the distinctive features of interest in the translation movement in this era

Fourth Phase: Translation after Al-Mamun

• The era of Caliph Al-Mutawakkil is considered the beginning of the continued interest in the translation movement
• This Caliph renewed the translation school and its library in Baghdad, just as he changed the material aid to scientists to search for manuscripts and bring them for the purpose of translating them
• Many princes were famous in this era for their love and collection of books, their establishment of luxurious libraries, and their spending on transportation, such as Muhammad bin Abdul Malik Al-Zayat
• Some of the most distinguished translators during this time were Sinan bin Thabit bin Qurra, and Issa bin Ishaq bin Zaraa

Importance of the Fourth Phase

• The Arab Muslims moved from collecting and acquiring to personal production i.e. that The Arabs in the previous eras cared about translating foreign sciences and studying them
• Golden era for translators translated to translations they demonstrated with the translation of what they enjoyed with ability and efficiency in this field
• Arabs distinguished between the knowledge that we knew through translation from one side and between their special knowledge from another side, so they called the first (Foreign knowledge) or the knowledge of the ancients or philosophical wisdom, and on the second (original sciences) the name (Traditional or Sharia sciences).
• Those who engage in translation and research in this period did not only pursue the sciences of mathematics and philosophy, and some of the factors which were behind their actions are concerned with their religion

Types of Translation

• When the Muslim Arabs began transmitting the foreign heritage - especially the Greek one
• They resorted to those who knew the languages of that heritage from the Syriacs and monks who speak Arabic
• They entrusted the transmission of this heritage to translators who were free to interpret

Three Methods of Translation

• Literal translation
• Translation by meaning
• Translation by Summarization and Abbreviation

Reasons Behind Translation from Greek to Arabic via Syriac

• The Syriac translators made their language the intermediary for science and knowledge from Greece to Arabic
• The desire of Hunayn bin Ishaq and his group to spread their Syriac language on a wide scale
• The continuation of enriching the Syriac-Greek heritage
• Hunayn bin Ishaq's desire to expand the circle of Syrian narrators in their translations of Greek heritage

Factors Contributing to Translation Movement

• The general stability and suitable scientific environment that resulted from the Islamic conquests with the prevalence of the spirit of tolerance and non-religious fanaticism fostered by the Arabs towards other nations and religions for their feeling - that is, the Arabs - of the need for those nations to participate in the making of Arab Islamic civilization, especially since the sons of these nations have become Arabs in language and religion
• The spirit of the Islamic religion is considered one of the most important factors in the flourishing of the scientific movement, as the verses of the Holy Quran and the hadiths of the Messenger - may God bless him and grant him peace - related to science and scholars and urging Muslims to seek knowledge no matter how far away its source and the difference in status between the scholar and the ignorant are, and the importance of the pen, all of that and other things made the Arabs enthusiastic in seeking knowledge, so they embraced research, study, and reading without boredom or boredom.
• The Caliphs for translation Aided by the physical and moral support of the Caliphs in general, even those of the Abbasids, and especially by Al-Mansur, Al-Rashid, Al-Ma'mun, and Mutawakil, as well as, with his personal support for the pursuit of the scientific calling by scientists generally
• Several families provided financial resources to the scholars employed to engage in the movement, contributing greatly to its expansion

Impediments to the Movement

• A number of viziers and physicians of the day with ready access to leading scholars concerned with languages generally
• Cultural connections between Arabs and other groups were vital
• Translation from many sources, especially medical, provided inspiration for Arabic scholars

Importance of Languages Generally

• Contributed to its dissemination
• Contact between Arabs and people of other nations supported its progress, especially during the rule of the Abbasids Arabic was ideally suited to the task

Islamic Movements Generally

• Religious dimensions helped shape intellectual environment, often in the service of dogmatism.
• The emergence of Islamic groups contributed greatly to this cultural environment
• Al-Sha'ubiyyah, or movements hostile to the dominance of Arab Muslims sought to create a climate for religious expression of all groups, often leading to clashes which stimulated calls for unity.
• Literary dimensions inspired by a wide range of movements served as vehicles for wider appreciation of the rich history of Islamic peoples and cultures

Transmission Generally

• The pursuit of higher callings, often stimulated attempts to reach higher levels of awareness and understanding
• Religious backgrounds and other concerns created a need to obtain rare manuscripts both by licit processes and in defiance of restrictions imposed in some situations The emergence of paper supported cultural connections

Translation Schools in the Arab World

• Arabic knowledge of medicine came from translations
• Physicians established hospitals run to the highest standards
• These were also like medical schools

Alexandria Medical Academy

• Prominent in the beginning movement in the Umayyad era
• Center for science and philosophy
• Some scholars in Islamic era were Stephanos of Alexandria and Ibn Abjar
• Characterized by philosophy, medicine, and chemistry
• Emergence of Greek philosophy in Muslim philosophy
• Decline in later eras

Antioch

• New home for the teachings of the School of Alexandria
• The Greek sciences formed the nucleus of the academic curriculum in the Antioch school
• Proximity to manuscripts helped with the search for manuscripts
• Antioch was able to provide most of the requirements for those Arabs who searched for ancient works

Harran

• City known for its residents, who practiced ancient pre-Islamic religions rooted in Babylonian star worship
•  Known for their polytheism and Greek culture
• Were very familiar with the Arabic language and were therefore accurate in their translations
• The medical expertise and scientific understanding of these people allowed for a great deal of information exchange to take place

Other Schools

• Nisibis
• Al-Ruha

Gundeshapur

• Persian school founded by Khosrow I Anushirvan in 531-578 AD in the city of Gundeshapur of Khuzestan
• It was a meeting point for Greek scholars who left and sought contact with other scientists and philosophers
• Center for Philosophical and Medical Studies
• Main relationship with the Abbasid Caliphate was with Al-Mansour and Al- رشید

House of Wisdom in Baghdad

• First public library in the Islamic world
• Contributed to the translation movement after attention it received
• Permanent location for translation, reproduction, and copying
• Home for research for translation

Results of Translation Movement

• Became heirs of Eastern and Greek culture
• Revealed deficiencies in the knowledge and scientists that other nations possessed
• Prepared Arabic speaking and Islamic scholars to seek new means for combining elements of cultures they contacted.
• Enlivened in those who had formerly represented that high level of culture, a new spirit
• Ancient and respected members of those societies experienced a period of renewal and became innovators.
• As a result of the need and desire to acquire what other nations possessed, many original writers began to be translated in almost all fields
• Arabic saved many different volumes from Greek, Hindi, and Persian cultures that did not have any original copies left
• Muslim scientists appeared and became intellectual thinkers who contributed to science, enriching the world by a large number of thoughts and theories
• The Arabs were also unique in the ways they had found to reveal treasures of knowledge, setting aside specific missions for large assets. These methods aroused the wonder of nations at that time
• There were negative effects where divisions were sown between Islam, influencing what at times had been a positive direction
• The Ummah came to possess its own unique identity and that identity came about as those already steeped in the legacy of their various sciences came together in an attempt to find a new system through which to live and understand one another

Traditional or Religious Sciences

• Consists of interpretation, grammar, science, language, and calligraphy, and it encompasses all that is good for Muslims
• Known as traditional sciences because such knowledge and its laws were mainly based on the texts of the Quran and Sunnah
• Called by some scholars religious sciences for the study of the Arabic Qurʾānic Script and the collection of Hadith
• Most of the sciences have remained within the remit of men and the study of women in these fields has been the exception in the minority

Science of Readings

• Term given to reading in the era of the Prophet – peace be upon him
• Companions were those who memorized the Qur’an and meaning of words, meaning were not subject to any kind of personal judgement
• Prophet conveyed meaning which was understood. In the era of Uthman (RA), the Companions distinguished themselves as authorities in conveying this expertise
• Differences in Sham and Iraq led Uthman (RA) to command the writing of a single text

Scientific Revolution

• New sciences and methodologies were invented
• Learning the alphabet and new writing styles
• Al-Farahidi and Al-Asma’i created the system of signs and diacritics as the beginnings of a grammar

Sciences

• Hadith
• Grammar
• Kalām

Science of Tafsir (Exegesis)

• Has been connected to the Prophet and those who followed after him
• Hadith, history, language, and calligraphy became well known
• Began out of question to why certain words have been placed in certain arrangements
• Connected to the events and circumstances faced by Muslims
• Understanding language necessary to explain how judgement derived

Different Approaches

• Strict restriction of Tafsir as it was known
• Strict commitment to the word alone only allowed for specific interpretations of events
• Interpretation only allowed if had been sanctioned by the Prophet

Science of Grammar

• Developed because of the study of the Quran and Tafsir
• Spread of Arabic nation grew and languages and dialects spoken grew
• Non-Arabic Muslims of Persia needed to understand the Arabic language
• There were various dialects of Arabic spoken in the time of the Prophet

Key Figures

• Abu al-Aswad al-Du'ali placed the fundamentals as al-Farahidi placed a number of signs; namely Ain known for his mastery of poetry
• Student Sivivah helped the first Arabic writing style come, and also the study on literature and composition
• Abu al-Taher Majd al-Din al-Fayrouzabadi became the first Arabic language dictionary

Science of Theology

• Prophet disapproved disputations
• Aversion to disputations among scholars and protectors of faith meant the Sunnis continued his example
• Among those who employed logic were those who saw them fit to create the science of Kalam

Motivations

• Religious disputations that existed between Christians
• Disputes among the Magi or Manichaeans,
• Al-Mamun advocated for the science of الكلام and often disputed claims

Medicine in the Golden Age

• Served the Arabs making a careful study of Greek, Iranian, and Indian theories
• Wrote different works on its applications
• Al-Hussain Ibn-Sina (d. 1037 CE) most celebrated for writing of the “Canon” on medicine
• Mohammad Ibn Zakariya al-Razi made careful accounts about small pox and measles
• Arabs involved with diagnosis and treatment came to identify all symptoms and conditions, identifying the key indicators that might be helpful in the case; The creation of separate hospitals was crucial in managing the field

Pioneers in this Sphere

• Al-Walid bin Abdul Malik founded many clinics for treatments that were in line with the treatment
• They researched and studied the human states of being with the causes for vomiting, headaches
• The medical and clinical were considered the backbone of clinical success
• Specialists arose in the field of ophthalmology

Pharmacy during Islamic Civilization

• The two sciences (medicine and pharmacy) were linked in the nascent stages
• Doctors often knew how to prepare treatments. The pharmacist was thus often the chief person making medicine as well.
• Pharmacists came to classify into the main forms. Such classifications enabled further understanding on medical treatments
• Arabs often looked to test treatments with the help of their other chemical treatments

Mathematics during Islamic Civilization.

• Religion supported and drove development
• Collection of money and legacies involved accounts
• Urban design helped with development in Maths
• Arabs invented the Zero, and studied Geometry.
• Arabs came to create the study of modern Trigonometry.

Astronomy during Islamic Civilization.

• The Arabs followed Indian and Greek innovations in the field
• Astrologers used to believe in astrology.
• A science developed from following and learning different theories
• Knowledge on movement of the moon and earth established by Arabs to inform the need to establish the direction in which peoples would pray in
• The study of eclipses and measurement of Earth enabled later developments
• Al-Farazi instrumental in the science.

Chemistry during Islamic Civilization.

• Science known as alchemy and the making of elixirs
• Arabs tested and reviewed chemical trials
• Distillation and dissolution recognized.
• Arabs made various improvements in Chemistry.
• Jabir bin Hayyan known as The father of Arab alchemy
• School of Chemistry became recognized