Synonyms: Classification and Sources

Synonyms

• Synonyms are words that belong to the same part of speech and share identical or nearly identical meanings, allowing for interchangeability in certain contexts without significant change in meaning.
• While synonyms may differ in morphemic composition, phonemic shape, and connotations, they can exhibit varied emotional and stylistic characteristics.

Examples of Synonyms

• "Hope," "expectation," and "anticipation" all imply having something in mind that is likely to occur, but they possess different nuances.
• Expectation can refer to both positive and negative outcomes. Anticipation generally reflects a positive expectation, while hope encompasses both belief and desire for a favorable event.

Stylistic Differences

• "Hope" is stylistically neutral and commonly used in idioms, whereas "anticipation" and "expectation" are more formal and typically used by educated speakers.
• Idiomatic expressions exclusively feature "hope," such as "to lose hope" or "to pin one's hopes on something."

Classification of Synonyms

• According to Vinogradov, there are three main categories of synonyms:
  • Absolute (total) synonyms
  • Ideographic synonyms
  • Stylistic synonyms

Absolute Synonyms

• Very rare in use; these synonyms share all meaning shades and stylistic characteristics, making them interchangeable in any given context.
• Examples are typically found in technical literature associated with specific fields.

Ideographic Synonyms

• Convey the same core idea but vary in emotional connotation and meaning. For instance:
  • "Stare" (surprise) vs. "glare" (anger).
  • Gradations in affection: "like," "admire," "love," "adore," "worship."

Stylistic Synonyms

• Have the same denotative meaning but differ in style. Examples include:
  • "Meal" can be referred to as "snack," "bite," or "feast," depending on formality.
  • "Girl" may be expressed as "girlie," "lass," or "damsel," indicating various dialects or levels of formality.

Sources of Synonymy

• Synonymy patterns vary across languages, with English showcasing a contrast between simple native words, literary borrowed words (often from French), and learned words of Greco-Latin origin.

Dialects and Variants

• Regional variations lead to synonyms such as:
  • "Radio" (American) vs. "wireless" (British).
  • "Gimmick" (American) vs. "trick" (British).

Word-forming Processes

• New words emerge through several processes:
  • Affixation (e.g., "effectivity" to "effectiveness").
  • Loss of affixes (e.g., "amongst" to "among").
  • Compounding (e.g., "stuardess" to "airman").
  • Shortening (e.g., "popular" to "pop").

Set Expressions

• Certain verbs form fixed phrases, such as:
  • "To choose" and "to pick out."
  • "To continue" and "to go on."

Euphemism

• A linguistic device where an agreeable term replaces one that is harsh or unpleasant, like "intoxicated" for "drunk" or "perspiration" for "sweat."