week 4,5,6 notes

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Questions and Answers

What is a key disadvantage of focusing on a single participant during observations?

Missed opportunities to record data (correct)

Increased time efficiency

More accurate data collection

Reduced observer fatigue

Which method involves counting specific behaviors during a fixed observation period?

Duration Method

Frequency Method (correct)

Qualitative Method

Interval Method

What does high inter-observer reliability indicate about the observations made?

There is a consensus among different observers (correct)

Observations are definitely valid

The same observer will consistently record behaviors the same way

Observations may vary significantly between observers

In the context of reliability, what is the difference between inter-rater and intra-rater reliability?

Inter-rater involves different observers, intra-rater involves the same observer Signup and view all the answers

Which factor does NOT increase inter-observer reliability?

Limiting the number of observers Signup and view all the answers

Why is it acceptable to conduct a study without a control group in this context?

It is a feasible study aimed at evaluating the intervention on a small scale. Signup and view all the answers

Which tool is specifically used to assess the risk of bias in randomized controlled trials (RCTs)?

Cochrane’s Risk of Bias Tool Signup and view all the answers

What aspect is crucial for assessing the validity of trial results?

Whether the groups had similar demographics at the start. Signup and view all the answers

What does the CONSORT checklist primarily aim to ensure?

Clarity and completeness in reporting trial results. Signup and view all the answers

What is an important consideration when determining if study results are applicable to a local population?

The demographic diversity of the participant pool. Signup and view all the answers

Which factor contributes to a study being labeled as a 'feasible study'?

The ability to implement an intervention on a smaller scale. Signup and view all the answers

What is a key question to assess the clarity of aims in a study?

Were the aims clearly stated and hypotheses laid out? Signup and view all the answers

In the context of trial design, what does blinding refer to?

Participants not knowing the control versus treatment group status. Signup and view all the answers

What is a primary advantage of archival research?

It provides a comparison of data from different time periods. Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following is a disadvantage of content analysis?

It can lack objectivity in the analysis. Signup and view all the answers

What is a benefit of using digital traces for research?

It allows for the discovery of surprising patterns. Signup and view all the answers

What is a notable challenge of continuous sampling as a research method?

It is time-consuming and expensive. Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following statements reflects a con associated with archival research?

The data may not be reliable due to modern interpretations. Signup and view all the answers

What ethical concern is associated with digital traces?

It raises questions of data ownership and power dynamics. Signup and view all the answers

How does content analysis provide transparency in research?

It clearly outlines the methodology and findings. Signup and view all the answers

Why might researchers prefer archival research over other methods?

It provides access to historical records without participant interference. Signup and view all the answers

What is a limitation of using digital traces in research?

Explaining the results can be challenging. Signup and view all the answers

Which aspect of continuous sampling might complicate the research process?

It requires researchers to observe for extended periods. Signup and view all the answers

What is a necessary component that should be included in graphs to enhance the precision of results?

Error bars or confidence intervals (CIs) Signup and view all the answers

What does a high impact factor (IF) generally indicate about a journal?

It has a high number of citations per article Signup and view all the answers

Which age range was most represented in the study's participants?

35-44 years Signup and view all the answers

What is one limitation of using impact factors as a measure of journal quality?

Impact factors can be artificially inflated by certain articles Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following is a benefit of secondary data analysis?

Access to a broad range of populations Signup and view all the answers

What is a common effect size metric used to report psychological effects?

Partial eta square (η²) Signup and view all the answers

What issue arises from the demographics of most study participants being predominantly male and white?

It leads to generalizability issues Signup and view all the answers

What is the purpose of peer-review in academic journals?

To reduce bias in published research Signup and view all the answers

Which measure of central tendency is often included along with standard deviations in research reports?

Mean Signup and view all the answers

What type of analysis is retrospective analysis classified as?

Secondary data analysis Signup and view all the answers

What is a primary disadvantage of using secondary data in research?

You often lack clarity on how the data was originally collected. Signup and view all the answers

During the secondary data analysis process, what is typically the first step?

Determine research questions and possible hypotheses Signup and view all the answers

Why is it important to read codebooks when using secondary data?

To understand procedures and methods used to collect the data. Signup and view all the answers

What is a key ethical concern when using secondary data?

Minimizing participant distress when using the data. Signup and view all the answers

What should researchers avoid doing when analyzing secondary data?

Data snooping and creating hypotheses based on results. Signup and view all the answers

What is a common reason for refining hypotheses when using secondary data?

The original study may have different variables that are not testable. Signup and view all the answers

What is meant by the term ‘data snooping’?

Creating hypotheses based on initial results instead of theory. Signup and view all the answers

What is a potential cost associated with accessing secondary datasets?

There might be a fee to obtain the dataset. Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following is NOT a step in the secondary data analysis process outlined by Donnellan & Lucas?

Develop new data collection methods. Signup and view all the answers

Why might a researcher choose secondary data over primary research?

Using secondary data can often be less time-consuming and expensive. Signup and view all the answers

Study Notes

Study Design Considerations

A lack of a control group means that researchers cannot definitively claim that any changes observed are due to the intervention
Small sample sizes in feasibility studies are acceptable, as they aim to test an intervention's effectiveness before scaling it up
Feasibility studies often use a small sample size to see if an intervention works on a large scale.

Assessment Tools and Guidelines

The CASP (Critical Appraisal Skills Guidelines) assesses the validity of specific types of studies, like RCTs.
Cochrane's Risk of Bias Tool is specifically for assessing randomized controlled trials (RCTs).
CONSORT (Consolidated Standards of Reporting Trials) checklist provides reporting guidelines for trials.
APA JARS (Journal Article Reporting Standards) provides guidelines for reporting journal articles.
The NHMRC evidence hierarchy is used by the Australian Psychological Society to evaluate the strength of evidence for interventions.

CASP (Critical Appraisal Skills Guidelines) for RCTs

The CASP guidelines include questions to guide researchers in assessing the validity of RCTs.
The questions cover areas such as randomization, blinding, group comparability, and treatment effect precision.
This provides a framework for researchers to assess the scientific rigor of research studies.

Journal Quality and Impact Factor (IF)

Peer-review helps reduce bias in published research.
Journals assign impact factors (IF) which provide a measure of the journal's influence, based on the average number of citations per article.
Higher impact factors are generally considered more prestigious.
IFs are used to evaluate journals; however, they can be misleading.
IFs can be influenced by disciplinary differences, types of articles, and journal manipulation.
Alternative impact factors are available.

Secondary Data Analysis

Secondary data analysis involves re-analyzing existing datasets for new questions.
It offers advantages such as access to diverse populations and the ability to conduct longitudinal studies.
Potential disadvantages:
- Lack of control over data collection methods
- Mismatch between original research and the current question
- Non-experimental design, limiting causal inferences
- Challenges in accessing data for large-scale datasets

Steps in Secondary Data Analysis

Define research questions and potential hypotheses.
Locate suitable datasets for the area of study.
Identify the original study's design and variables.
Revise hypotheses based on available variables in the dataset.
Analyze the data.
Draw conclusions and report the findings.
Researchers can use secondary data to answer new questions.
Ethical considerations are essential, ensuring the benefits of re-using data outweigh risks to participants.

Important Considerations in Secondary Data Analysis (Donnellan & Lucas, 2013)

The use of secondary data may require ethical approval.
Compromising on research design or variables weakens the strength of conclusions.
Determine if secondary data is sufficient for answering the research question or if it's better to collect primary data.
Analytic methods should align with the sampling design.
Guard against "data snooping" or developing hypotheses based on pre-existing data patterns.

Archival, Content, and Digital Trace Based Research

Archival research uses historical records to analyze past behaviors or events.
Advantages include non-interruptive access to data and the ability to compare data across time periods.
Limitations include challenges in observing actual behaviors and limitations in inference.

Content Analysis

Content analysis analyzes the textual content of documents, communications, or media to understand patterns, frequency, and quality of behaviors.
It offers transparency in inferential processes and can identify patterns that might not be readily apparent.
Potential issue is that content analysis is based on inferential methods not direct observations.

Digital Trace Research

Digital traces are digital artifacts, like user activity, online transactions, and communications.
Advantages include access to large datasets and potential for uncovering surprising patterns.
Challenges involve explaining patterns and addressing ethical concerns related to data privacy and ownership.

Sampling Behavior

Continuous sampling records all behaviors happening within a set period.
It offers a comprehensive perspective on behavior dynamics, but can be costly and time-consuming.
Time-sampling observes behavior in specific time intervals.
It is more efficient than continuous sampling but may miss behaviors that occur outside the sampled intervals.
Event sampling focuses on specific events or behaviors that meet predefined criteria.
It is useful for studying infrequent behaviors, but may not provide a complete understanding of the context of those events.

Recording Behaviors

Recording behavior depends on the research goals and aims.
Quantitative measures provide numerical data, while qualitative measures focus on detailed descriptions.

Quantitative Measures of Behavior

    - The frequency method counts the frequency of specific behaviors during a set observation period.
    - The duration method measures the time spent engaged in a particular behavior within a set time period.
    - The interval method divides the observation period into time intervals and records behavior occurrence during each interval.

Inter-Observer and Intra-Rater Reliability

Inter-observer reliability is the degree of agreement between independent observers on their observations.
Intra-rater reliability is the consistency of observations by the same observer over different time points.
High inter-observer reliability increases confidence in the accuracy of observations.
Reliability is improved through clear behavior definitions, observer training, and feedback on discrepancies.
It is assessed through measures like percentage agreement or correlations.

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