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What type of reliability refers to the consistency of scores across repeated administrations of the same test?
What is the primary purpose of calculating effect size in statistical analysis?
Which research design involves collecting data from participants at a single point in time?
What is the main application of statistical inference in psychological research?
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What is an assumption underlying the use of analysis of variance (ANOVA) in psychological research?
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What type of graph is used to represent the relationship between two continuous variables?
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What is an advantage of using non-parametric tests in psychological research?
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Which type of reliability refers to the consistency among items within a measurement scale?
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What is the purpose of a chi-square test in psychological research?
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What is the primary advantage of using a longitudinal design in psychological research?
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What is the main difference between cross-sectional and longitudinal designs?
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What is the primary goal of factor analysis in psychological measurement?
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What is reliability in psychological measurement?
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What is a disadvantage of using non-parametric tests in psychological research?
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What is an example of the application of a chi-square test in psychological research?
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Why is factor analysis used in psychological measurement?
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What is the primary purpose of hypothesis testing in statistical analysis?
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What is the correct formula to calculate the standard deviation of a dataset?
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What is the interpretation of a correlation coefficient (r) of 0.7?
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What is the primary goal of setting a significance level (α) in hypothesis testing?
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What is the primary difference between parametric and non-parametric tests?
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What is the consequence of a Type II error in hypothesis testing?
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What is the purpose of calculating the variance of a dataset?
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What is the relationship between the significance level (α) and the power of a test?
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What is the primary purpose of conducting a meta-analysis in psychology?
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Which of the following tests assumes data follow a specific distribution?
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What is the role of the sampling distribution in statistical inference?
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What is the final step in conducting a hypothesis test using the five-step approach?
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What is the primary purpose of calculating the effect size in statistical analysis?
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Which type of test is used for ordinal or non-normally distributed data?
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What is the purpose of the null hypothesis in a hypothesis test?
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What is the primary purpose of a confidence interval in psychological research?
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What is the significance of the p-value in a hypothesis test?
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What is the assumption of linearity in regression analysis?
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What is the primary application of regression analysis in psychological research?
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What is the definition of test-retest reliability?
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What is the primary purpose of a factorial design in psychological research?
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What is the primary advantage of using a factorial design in psychological research?
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What is the purpose of Cronbach's alpha in psychological research?
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What is the primary assumption of homoscedasticity in regression analysis?
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Study Notes
Measures of Variation
- Variance: average of the squared differences from the mean
- Standard deviation: square root of the variance
Correlation
- Correlation: measures the strength and direction of a linear relationship between two variables
- Correlation coefficient (r): ranges from -1 to +1
- Positive values indicate a positive relationship
- Negative values indicate a negative relationship
- Zero indicates no linear relationship
Hypothesis Testing
- Hypothesis testing: statistical method to make inferences about a population based on sample data
- Steps:
- Formulate null and alternative hypotheses
- Set a significance level (α)
- Collect and analyze data using appropriate statistical tests
- Compare the calculated test statistic with the critical value or p-value
- Make a decision to either reject or fail to reject the null hypothesis based on the evidence
Errors in Hypothesis Testing
- Type I error: incorrectly rejecting a true null hypothesis (false positive)
- Controlled by lowering the significance level (α)
- Type II error: incorrectly failing to reject a false null hypothesis (false negative)
- Controlled by increasing sample size or improving test sensitivity (power)
Parametric and Non-Parametric Tests
- Parametric tests: assume data come from a specific distribution (e.g., normal distribution)
- Examples: t-tests, ANOVA, Pearson correlation
- Non-parametric tests: do not make assumptions about data distribution
- Examples: Mann-Whitney U test, Wilcoxon signed-rank test, Spearman correlation
Analysis of Variance (ANOVA)
- Assumptions:
- Normality: residuals (errors) are normally distributed
- Homogeneity of variances: variances of groups being compared are approximately equal
- Independence: observations within each group are independent of each other
Non-Parametric Tests
- Advantages:
- Robust to violations of assumptions (e.g., normality, homogeneity of variance)
- Applicable to ordinal or non-normally distributed data
- Easier to interpret without stringent requirements
- Disadvantages:
- Less powerful than parametric tests with normally distributed data
- May lose efficiency with larger sample sizes
- Provide less precise estimates of population parameters
Chi-Square Test
- Chi-square test: determines if there is a significant association between categorical variables in a contingency table
- Example: assessing whether there is a relationship between gender and voting preference in a political survey
Factor Analysis
- Factor analysis: statistical technique that identifies patterns or underlying dimensions (factors) among a set of variables
- Role in psychological measurement: reduces data complexity by grouping variables based on shared variance, aiding in the development of more concise and interpretable measurement scales
Reliability
- Reliability: consistency and stability of measurement over time and across different conditions
- Types:
- Test-retest reliability: consistency of scores across repeated administrations of the same test
- Internal consistency reliability: consistency among items within a measurement scale (e.g., Cronbach's alpha)
- Inter-rater reliability: consistency between different raters or observers scoring the same behavior or event
Effect Size
- Effect size: quantifies the strength of a relationship or the magnitude of an effect independent of sample size
- Importance: helps researchers assess the practical significance of findings, compare results across studies, and make informed decisions about the relevance of their research in practical settings
Research Designs
- Cross-sectional design: collects data from participants at a single point in time to compare different groups or assess relationships between variables
- Longitudinal design: follows the same group of participants over an extended period to study developmental changes, stability of behaviors, or the effects of interventions over time
Statistical Inference
- Statistical inference: using sample data to make generalizations or predictions about a population
- Applications: hypothesis testing, estimating population parameters, and drawing conclusions based on statistical evidence derived from sample data
Data Visualization
- Scatterplot: graphical representation of the relationship between two continuous variables
- Confidence interval: range of values calculated from sample data that is likely to include the true population parameter, with a specified level of confidence (e.g., 95% confidence)
Regression Analysis
- Assumptions:
- Linearity: relationship between variables
- Independence of errors
- Homoscedasticity: constant variance of errors
- Normality of residuals
- Applications: predicting outcomes based on predictor variables, identifying significant predictors of behavior or outcomes, and understanding relationships between variables
Meta-Analysis
- Meta-analysis: statistical technique for combining results from multiple studies to obtain an overall estimate of the effect size
- Purpose: provides a comprehensive summary of existing research, identifies patterns or inconsistencies across studies, and enhances the reliability and generalizability of findings
Factorial Design
- Factorial design: experimental design involving the simultaneous manipulation of two or more independent variables (factors)
- Use: allows researchers to study main effects of each factor and interactions between factors, providing insights into how different variables interact to influence outcomes
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Description
Test your understanding of statistical measures, correlation, and hypothesis testing. Calculate variance, standard deviation, and correlation coefficient, and interpret the results.