Statistical Significance, Errors & Research Questions

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Questions and Answers

A researcher sets their level of significance at .05. What does this indicate about the study's results?

  • There is a 5% chance that the results occurred due to random chance, assuming the null hypothesis is true. (correct)
  • There is a 5% chance that the results are practically significant.
  • There is a 95% chance that the null hypothesis is false.
  • There is a 95% chance that the results are due to a true effect, and a 5% chance the null hypothesis is true.

What is the primary difference between a Type I error and a Type II error in hypothesis testing?

  • A Type I error is related to the study sample size while a Type II error is related to the central limit theorem.
  • A Type I error only occurs in experimental research designs, while a Type II error only occurs in quasi-experimental designs.
  • A Type I error is rejecting a true null hypothesis, while a Type II error is failing to reject a false null hypothesis. (correct)
  • A Type I error is failing to reject a true null hypothesis, while a Type II error is rejecting a false null hypothesis.

Which of the following attributes are crucial for a research question to effectively guide a study?

  • Subjectivity, complexity, and abstractness.
  • Axiomatic, theoretical, and general.
  • Empirical, specific, and measurable. (correct)
  • Philosophical, broad, and easily answered.

How does a research question typically evolve into a theory within a scientific framework?

<p>A research question leads to a hypothesis, which, if supported by multiple studies, contributes to theory formation. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What distinguishes 'agreement reality' from 'experiential reality'?

<p>Agreement reality is what we accept as true because society tells us so whereas experiential reality is what we personally experience. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What does 'reification' refer to in the context of social science research?

<p>Treating an abstract concept as if it were a concrete entity. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How does scientific inquiry differ from casual human inquiry?

<p>Scientific inquiry is systematic, empirical, and objective, while casual human inquiry relies on intuition, authority, or anecdotal evidence. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

A researcher concludes that all teenagers enjoy playing video games after surveying only students in a computer science club. Which error in inquiry does this best exemplify?

<p>Overgeneralization (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following best illustrates the process of moving from a theoretical proposition to a testable hypothesis?

<p>Stating that 'crime rates and poverty are related' then predicting 'an increase in poverty will lead to increased crime in specific neighborhoods'. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

In a study examining the relationship between education and income, what role does 'job experience' play if it influences both education levels attained and subsequent income earned?

<p>It is a spurious variable, potentially creating a false relationship between education and income. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

A researcher finds that areas with more parks have lower crime rates. Before concluding that access to parks reduces crime, what must the researcher demonstrate to establish causality?

<p>That there are no other factors, like community policing or economic conditions, that explain the lower crime rates. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

A study measures 'social media usage' by asking participants to estimate the number of hours they spend daily on social media platforms. What is a primary concern regarding this measurement?

<p>The measurement lacks validity because people may not accurately recall or report their social media usage. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

A researcher defines 'poverty' as 'the state of being poor' (Nominal Definition) and measures it by calculating the percentage of households below the federal poverty line in a specific geographic area (Operational Definition). What best describes this process?

<p>The researcher has effectively moved from conceptualization to operationalization of the concept of poverty. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which level of measurement is best represented by ranking students based on their performance in an exam (e.g., 1st, 2nd, 3rd)?

<p>Ordinal (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

A researcher wants to understand changes in political attitudes among Millennials over time. Which longitudinal study design would be most appropriate?

<p>A panel study, repeatedly surveying the exact same group of Millennials over several years. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary goal of 'falsification' in the context of scientific theory testing?

<p>To identify potential weaknesses and limitations of a theory by seeking evidence that contradicts it. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

In research, what best describes a 'constant'?

<p>A characteristic that remains the same across all observations. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

A researcher observes that towns with more vegan restaurants also have lower rates of heart disease. Concluding that vegan diets cause better heart health in the general population would risk which fallacy?

<p>Ecological Fallacy (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Flashcards

.05 Level of Significance

A threshold indicating a 5% chance results are due to random chance, not a real effect.

Type I Error

Rejecting a true null hypothesis, concluding there is an effect when there isn't.

Type II Error

Failing to reject a false null hypothesis, missing a real effect.

Research Question

A focused question that guides a research study.

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Agreement Reality

Accepting societal 'truths' without personal verification.

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Experiential Reality

What we know from direct, personal experiences.

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Reification

Treating an abstract idea (like 'love') as a concrete thing.

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Overgeneralization

Assuming one case applies to all situations.

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Variable

A characteristic that can vary or change (e.g., age, income).

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Attribute

A specific value of a variable (e.g., for gender: male, female).

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Independent Variable

The 'cause' variable that influences another variable.

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Dependent Variable

The 'effect' variable that is influenced by another variable.

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Spurious Relationship

A false relationship between variables caused by a third variable.

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Conceptualization

Defining exactly what you mean by a concept.

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Operationalization

Defining how you will measure a concept.

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Reliability

The consistency of a measurement.

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Validity

The accuracy of a measurement.

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Ecological Fallacy

Assuming that group-level trends apply to individuals.

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Study Notes

  • Understanding the .05 Level of Significance indicates a 5% chance that results are due to random chance.
  • The *.05 level of significance is a threshold commonly used in hypothesis testing to determine statistical significance.

Type I and Type II errors

  • Type I Error (False Positive): Rejecting a true null hypothesis.
  • Type II Error (False Negative): Failing to reject a false null hypothesis.

Research Question

  • A research question is a clear, focused question that guides a study.
  • Good research questions must be empirical, specific, measurable, significant, and relevant.

How a Research Question Becomes a Theory

  • Observation: Identifying a phenomenon.
  • Forming a Research Question: Asking a testable question.
  • Hypothesis Development: Proposing a relationship between variables.
  • Theory Formation: A hypothesis contributes to a broader theoretical framework when supported by multiple studies.
  • Example: A research question may ask, "Does the use of the death penalty reduce homicide rates?"
  • Example: A related hypothesis could be, "states with capital punishment should have lower homicide rates".

Agreement Reality vs. Experiential Reality

  • Agreement Reality: Acceptance of truth based on societal knowledge.
  • Experiential Reality: Knowledge gained from personal experience.
  • Reification: Treating an abstract concept as a concrete entity.
  • Peer Review: Expert evaluation of research before publication.

Science vs. Casual Inquiry

  • Science is systematic, empirical, and objective.
  • Casual human inquiry relies on intuition, authority, or anecdotal evidence.
  • Overgeneralization: Assuming one case applies universally.
  • Selective Observation: Noticing only supporting evidence.
  • Inaccurate Observation: Misinterpreting or mis-recording data.
  • Illogical Reasoning: Using flawed logic.
  • Resistance to Change: Rejecting new evidence.
  • Ego Involvement in Understanding: Bias due to personal beliefs.
  • Premature Closure of Inquiry: Stopping investigation too soon.
  • Social Science Methods help reduce these errors through systematic observation, replication, and peer review.
  • Theories can only be supported or falsified, not proven.
  • Falsifiability requires that a scientific theory must be testable and refutable.

Steps to Creating and Testing Theories

  • Observation: Identifying patterns.
  • Theory Development: Forming a general explanation.
  • Hypothesis Formation: Creating testable statements.
  • Empirical Testing: Conducting research to confirm or refute the hypothesis.
  • Theory: A set of interrelated concepts explaining a phenomenon.
  • Concepts: Abstract ideas (e.g., crime, justice, inequality).
  • Propositions: General statements linking concepts.
  • Hypotheses: Specific, testable predictions.
  • If predicted outcomes are false → The theory may need revision or rejection.
  • If predicted outcomes are true → The theory gains support but is not “proven”.
  • Falsification seeks to disprove theories.
  • Confirmation seeks to gather supporting evidence.

Causality and Variables

  • Variable: A characteristic that varies.
  • Attribute: A specific value of a variable.
  • Constant: A factor that does not change.
  • Independent Variable (IV): The cause.
  • Dependent Variable (DV): The effect.
  • Control Variables: Held constant to isolate causal effects.
  • Necessary Cause: Must be present for the effect to occur.
  • Sufficient Cause: Guarantees the effect.
  • Contributory Cause: Increases likelihood but is neither necessary nor sufficient.
  • Spurious Relationship: A false correlation caused by a third variable.

Steps to Establish Causality

  • Correlation between the IV and DV.
  • Temporal Precedence of the IV before the DV.
  • Non-Spuriousness with no alternative explanations.

Conceptualization, Measurement, & Operationalization

  • Conceptualization: Defining what a concept means.
  • Operationalization: Defining how to measure it.
  • Nominal Definition: Dictionary-like definition.
  • Operational Definition: Specifies measurement method.

Levels of Measurement

  • Nominal: Categories with no rank (e.g., gender, race).
  • Ordinal: Ordered categories (e.g., education level).
  • Interval: Equal intervals but no true zero (e.g., temperature).
  • Ratio: Equal intervals with a true zero (e.g., income).
  • Reliability: Consistency of measurement.
  • Validity: Accuracy of measurement.
  • Use multiple indicators for complex concepts.

Research Design

  • Exploratory Studies: Investigates new topics.
  • Descriptive Studies: Describes characteristics.
  • Explanatory Studies: Identifies causal relationships.

Research Designs

  • Cross-Sectional: One point in time.
  • Longitudinal: Over time.
  • Trend Studies: Population trends.
  • Cohort Studies: Specific groups.
  • Panel Studies: Same individuals.

Common Fallacies

  • Ecological Fallacy: Assuming group-level trends apply to individuals.
  • Fallacy of Composition: Assuming individual traits apply to groups.

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