States of Matter Overview

Solids have a fixed volume and shape, with high density and particles that vibrate in place.
Liquids also maintain constant volume but take the shape of their container; they have high density and limited compressibility.
Gases assume both the volume and shape of their container, exhibiting low density and high compressibility; particles move randomly and quickly over large distances.

Crystalline Solids: Particles arranged in a regular, ordered structure leading to definite geometrical shapes; examples include diamond and salt.
Amorphous Solids: Lack a defined structure; they soften over a range of temperatures rather than melting at one specific point. Examples include glass and rubber.
Metallic Solids: Composed of metal atoms with properties such as high melting points and good conductivity; examples are copper and iron.
Ionic Solids: Formed from ions, they possess high melting points and are brittle; examples include NaCl and Ca(NO3)2.
Covalent-Network Solids: Atoms connected by robust covalent bonds; examples include diamond and quartz.
Molecular Solids: Formed from discrete molecules; typically softer with lower melting points; examples include sugar and dry ice.

Dipole-Dipole Forces: Attraction between polar molecules.
Hydrogen Bonding: Occurs when hydrogen is bonded to electronegative atoms like N, O, or F; significantly affects boiling points, such as in water.
London Dispersion Forces: Weak and present in all molecules, influential in nonpolar substances.
Ion-Dipole Forces: Strongest attraction occurring between ions and polar molecules.
The strength hierarchy of intermolecular forces: Ion-Dipole > Hydrogen Bonding > Dipole-Dipole > London Dispersion.

All matter consists of tiny particles, with speed proportional to temperature.
Increased temperature leads to increased particle speed and motion.
Differences in solid, liquid, and gas states arise from the distance between particles, their freedom of movement, and interaction extent.

Known as a universal solvent due to its polarity.
Boiling points vary based on external pressure: 100°C at sea level, 101.4°C in the Dead Sea, and 69.9°C at Everest.
Ice floats on water because it is less dense due to stable hydrogen bonding arranged far apart.

Eukaryotic Cells: Larger, with DNA mostly contained in the nucleus.
Prokaryotic Cells: Smaller, with DNA located in a region called the nucleoid.
Cellular structures such as ribosomes, mitochondria, and chloroplasts play specific roles in protein synthesis, respiration, and photosynthesis respectively.
Endomembrane System: Includes the nucleus, endoplasmic reticulum, Golgi apparatus, and lysosomes; facilitates cellular metabolism.

Zacharias Jansen: Developed the first compound microscope.
Robert Hooke: Observed cork cells and coined the term "cell."
Anton van Leeuwenhoek: Perfected microscopy techniques and discovered microorganisms.
Matthias Schleiden and Theodore Schwann: Established foundational ideas of cell theory in the 1830s.
Rudolf Virchow: Proposed that all cells come from pre-existing cells, enhancing the cell theory.

Capillary Action: Movement of liquids in narrow spaces; vital in biological systems like capillaries.
Surface Tension: Elastic force on the liquid's surface; stronger intermolecular forces lead to higher surface tension.

Cell fractionation: A process to separate cell components based on size and density through centrifugation at varying speeds and times.

Seven essential properties of life include order, reproduction, growth and development, energy processing, response to the environment, regulation, and evolutionary adaptation.
Chloroplast: Site of photosynthesis, containing structures like grana and stroma.
Mitochondria: Powerhouse of the cell, responsible for energy production through cellular respiration.