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Questions and Answers
What is the function of neurons?
Which book is not listed under the recommended reading for the lecture?
What is the primary focus of the lecture?
Which part of the nervous system is responsible for producing cerebrospinal fluid (CSF)?
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Which part of the brain is responsible for connecting the two separate hemispheres?
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Which type of neuron has distinct characteristics and functions, and can be found in the brain, spinal cord, and ganglia?
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Where can a spinal tap be performed to collect cerebrospinal fluid?
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How many pairs of spinal nerves are there?
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Which system is responsible for the 'fight or flight' response?
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What is the function of the major divisions of the peripheral nervous system?
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What is the main component of bone matrix providing tensile strength?
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Which cells are involved in bone remodelling?
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What is the primary function of bone marrow?
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Which type of bone is spongy, light, and has high porosity?
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What cell type is responsible for bone reabsorption by removing mineralization and liberating calcium and phosphate?
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At what age does the growth plate typically fuse with the metaphysis?
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Which hormone is the major controller of free Ca$^{2+}$ in the body?
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What is the active form of vitamin D produced through 1$α$-hydroxylation in the kidney?
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What condition is characterized by low bone mass and microarchitectural deterioration of bone tissue?
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What cells mediate bone turnover throughout life?
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What is the primary function of the cell ('plasma') membrane?
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Which type of membrane proteins are embedded within the lipid bilayer and involved in transport across the membrane?
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What is the primary mechanism for the transport of lipid-soluble substances such as O2 and CO2 across the cell membrane?
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What is responsible for establishing the resting membrane potential (RMP) in a neuron?
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What is the primary function of the Na+/K+ ATPase pump in maintaining the resting membrane potential (RMP)?
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What is the consequence of the diffusion of K+ out of the cell down its concentration gradient established by the Na+/K+ ATPase pump?
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What is the equilibrium potential for K+ according to the Nernst equation?
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Which ion transporter is a major driving force for transport processes across membranes?
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What type of membrane potential change involves a decrease in membrane potential below the resting level?
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Which ion's equilibrium potential is closest to the resting membrane potential of -70mV?
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What is the neurotransmitter at the effector organ in the somatic nervous system?
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Where is the site of origin for most neurons in the somatic nervous system?
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What type of innervation do effector organs in the somatic nervous system receive?
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What is the primary effect on effector organs in the somatic nervous system?
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Which neurotransmitter is the only one present at the effector organ in the somatic nervous system?
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Which part of the nervous system is responsible for voluntary control in the somatic nervous system?
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Which higher centers are involved in the control of the somatic nervous system?
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What is the type of control in the somatic nervous system?
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Which neurotransmitter is described in-depth in Ganong's review of medical physiology in relation to the somatic nervous system?
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Which chapter of Human Physiology by Lauralee Sherwood is recommended for further reading on the somatic nervous system?
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Study Notes
Anatomy and Physiology of the Spinal Cord and Peripheral Nervous System
- The spinal cord extends from the foramen magnum to the disc between vertebrae L1/L2 in adults.
- It is covered by three meningeal layers and contains grey matter surrounded by white matter.
- A spinal tap can be performed at the L3/L4 or L4/L5 level to collect cerebrospinal fluid.
- The major divisions of the peripheral nervous system include somatic and visceral components.
- There are 12 cranial nerves responsible for various functions such as smell, vision, and facial sensation.
- There are 31 pairs of spinal nerves, which contain both sensory and motor fibers.
- Spinal nerve injuries, herniated intervertebral discs, and osteoarthritis can lead to dermatomal pain and muscle weakness.
- The knowledge of dermatomes and myotomes is important for understanding the distribution of sensory and motor fibers.
- Reflexes are the simplest form of activity in the nervous system and can be monosynaptic or polysynaptic.
- The autonomic nervous system consists of the sympathetic and parasympathetic systems, responsible for fight or flight and rest and digest responses, respectively.
- The sympathetic system increases heart rate and dilates blood vessels, while the parasympathetic system slows heart rate and relaxes muscles.
- The sympathetic and parasympathetic systems have distinct locations for the pre- and post-synaptic cell bodies and target organs.
Calcium and Phosphate Regulation in the Body
- The ionized form (Ca2+) mediates most physiological functions.
- Acidosis leads to displacement of Ca2+ from protein, increasing free [Ca2+], while alkalosis promotes Ca2+ binding to protein, decreasing free [Ca2+].
- Daily calcium regulation involves dietary intake, absorption in the gastrointestinal tract, secretion, urinary excretion, and distribution in the skeleton and extracellular fluid (ECF).
- Parathyroid hormone (PTH), released from the parathyroid glands, is the major controller of free Ca2+ in the body and is released at low plasma [Ca2+].
- PTH regulates plasma Ca2+ by stimulating bone reabsorption and promoting the reabsorption of Ca2+ in the kidneys.
- PTH also stimulates the 1α-hydroxylase enzyme, a key step in the synthesis of the active form of vitamin D.
- Active vitamin D production involves various steps including 25-hydroxylation in the liver and 1α-hydroxylation in the kidney to produce 1,25 dihydroxy-vitamin D3.
- Vitamin D promotes the increased synthesis of components such as Ca2+ channels and actively pumps out Ca2+ in the gut and promotes Ca2+ and phosphate reabsorption in the kidney tubules.
- Osteoporosis is a systemic skeletal disease characterized by low bone mass and microarchitectural deterioration of bone tissue, leading to bone fragility and susceptibility to fracture, particularly in post-menopausal women.
- Vitamin D deficiency can lead to conditions such as rickets in children and osteomalacia in adults, characterized by abnormal amounts of unmineralized osteoid and bone weakness.
- Bone growth stops with the fusing of the epiphyseal plate in the long bones, while bone turnover continues throughout life, mediated by osteoblasts, osteoclasts, and osteocytes.
- Vitamin D and PTH play a crucial role in controlling plasma Ca2+ levels and bone mineralization, and their deficiency can alter Ca2+ availability and decrease bone mineralization.
Resting Membrane Potential and Ion Transport Summary
- Resting membrane potential is maintained at -70mV due to K+ leak channels allowing K+ to diffuse out of the cell
- The Nernst equation calculates equilibrium potential for ions using concentration gradients
- The equilibrium potential for K+ is -90mV, while for Na+ it is 60mV
- The resting membrane potential is close to the K+ equilibrium potential
- The sodium-potassium ATPase transports three Na+ ions out and two K+ ions into the cell
- Membrane potential changes include depolarization, hyperpolarization, and repolarization
- The Na-K pump is a major driving force for transport processes across membranes
- Ion channels include leak channels (e.g. K+ leak channel), voltage-gated channels (e.g. Voltage-gated sodium channel), and ligand-gated channels
- Examples of drugs modifying voltage-sensitive ion channels include local anesthetics and Ca2+-channel blockers
- Recommended reading materials for further understanding of physiology are provided
- The resting membrane potential is maintained by the balance of ion movements and the activity of ion channels and transporters
- The equilibrium potential for an ion is the membrane potential at which the electrical driving force is equal and opposite to the chemical driving force
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Description
Test your knowledge of the anatomy and physiology of the spinal cord and peripheral nervous system with this quiz. Explore topics such as spinal nerves, cranial nerves, reflexes, and the autonomic nervous system. Learn about dermatomes, myotomes, and the divisions of the peripheral nervous system while enhancing your understanding of spinal cord function and the role of the sympathetic and parasympathetic systems.
