Special Operations Rescue Services

Special Operations

• Rescue aims to free from confinement, danger, or evil
• Technical rescue requires specialized tools, equipment, and technical expertise
• NFPA 1670 defines technical rescue as applying specialized knowledge, skills, and equipment to resolve complex rescue situations
• Main components of rescue involve improvising, adapting, and overcoming

Providing Rescue Services

• Squads focus on enhancing the department's hazardous materials response capability
• Task-force-type organizations face challenges in rostering and training multiple individuals for the same tasks due to unpredictable availability
• Federal system task forces roster personnel three deep in each position
• Non-dedicated rescue squads are among the more common but less effective methods of providing rescue service
• Reviewing past operations and recent trends helps confirm the current system meets required service levels, should be done every five years
• Ascertain end users' visions for apparatus design early in the process
• Rescue vehicles can weigh over 70,000 lbs
• Tool and equipment lists determine compartment sizes and layouts
• Vehicles needing limited power for extended periods benefit from smaller generators; units with higher demand benefit from pto-driven units

Equipment Layout

• Prioritize keeping heavy items low to aid in lifting and stability
• Related tools should be stored together
• Arrange essential equipment to enable one-person removal, transportation, and use
• Tools are items that distinguish special units from a line unit

Tool Power Sources

• Six common power sources for tools in rescue operations include:
  • Gasoline
  • Manual
  • Battery
  • Electrical
  • Hydraulic
• The hydraulic bottle jack is the earliest, simplest, and most useful rescue tool

Compressed Air

• Compressed air stores energy and can be used at various pressures, this provides flexibility
• High-pressure (145 psi) airbags can lift up to 93 tons with a single bag
• Large-surface-area, low-pressure bags can lift 10 tons or more
• A typical impact wrench uses 5 cubic feet of air per minute, with a typical 45 cf air cylinder lasting under ten minutes

Electric Power Units

• Electric power units available for hydraulic tools eliminate exhaust fumes and engine noise
• Electric-powered tools can be started and stopped with a switch
• Battery-powered tools add portability
• 18 and 24 volt units can use the same type of electric units

Tool Training & Maintenance

• Using tools in training ensures fresh fuel, familiarity with tools at full working load and capacity
• Hydraulic rescue tool sets are fundamental rescue tools
• Rescues need a large, apparatus-mounted winch
• PTO-style winches can handle up to 20,000 lbs
• Electric model winches can handle up to 12,000 lbs
• Industrial winches have low safety factors (2:1 or 3:1) and human/rescue applications need 10:1
• Griphoists are preferred for rescue and have a failsafe wire rope mechanism
• Griphoists have capacities up to 8,800 lbs and overload-preventing shearpins
• Blocks, or large pulleys, enable redirection of pull to create mechanical advantages
• Atmospheric hazards lead to many rescue operation casualties
• Atmospheric hazards include oxygen deficiency/enrichment, flammability, carbon monoxide, and hydrogen sulfide in sewer gas lines and industrial processes
• The human mind is paramount in any rescue
• Missing equipment requires notation of removal date in the office log
• SCBA maintenance by field personnel should be limited to routine cleaning and inspections
• In-service training balances hands-on skills and knowledge
• Motivating members, new and experienced alike, is the first step of a training program. Builds a rescuer attitude

Rescuer Mindset

• A main motivating factor in rescue is self-preservation, to avoid or extract oneself from foreseeable dangers
• Rescuers should be proactive and remember "I am my brother’s keeper."
• Special operations unit members require:
  • Stamina
  • Ability to think on the run
  • The ability to coordinate with others
  • SCBA operation by feel in zero visibility
  • Blindfolded task performance of basic skills like tying knots
• The goal is to avoid any attitude that rescuers are superior to others
• Proper training material is vital, procedures should be written down, reviewed, and updated

Emergency Response Procedures

• Emergency response operations use a ten-step plan:
  • Preparation
  • Response
  • Incident assessment
  • Hazard control
  • Support
  • Gain access
  • Disentanglement
  • Patient packaging
  • Patient removal
  • Termination
• Transportation facilities like highways, rail yards, and airports often require high responder capabilities
• Special projects pose problems for responders
• Communities should conduct situational analysis of existing and neighboring resources, as well as thinking regionally

Incident Assessment

• Key incident assessment questions:
  • What occurred?
  • How many victims are affected/trapped?
  • Are they savable?
  • Can they be saved using available resources?
  • What are responder dangers?
  • Can dangers be mitigated?
• Incident assessment prioritizes threats to rescuers and victims
• Detecting/analyzing hazards is critical and must occur immediately and continuously at the incident
• Constant situational awareness is essential
• 60% of victims in confined space rescues are rescuers
• Patient packaging balances protection, speed, size, and weight

Termination of Incident

• Accounting for every personnel's physical and psychological state is critical
• Incidents involving tragic events need a incident stress debriefing

Air Tools

• Air-powered tools are lightweight, portable, and reduce the risk of flammable vapor ignition
• Three basic styles of airbags include:
  • Low-pressure lifting
  • Medium-pressure leak sealing
  • High-pressure lifting
• Force equals the bag's internal pressure multiplied by its contact surface area with the object being lifted
• A low-pressure bag at 7 psi on a 42-inch diameter creates about 5 tons of lifting force
• Other models operate at a higher 14.5 psi and can lift as large as 34,000 lbs up to 6 ft high
• Airbags should have markings for max weight and height, and those values can't be achieved at the same time

Rigging

• Pilasters are thickened brick sections used to add wall stiffness
• Calculating loads, gravity centers, load angles, hoisting capacities, and attachment all need consideration before moving any objects
• Rigging multiplies applied force using mechanical advantages includes the lever, inclined plane and the pulley
• These advantages overcome natural forces:
  • Gravity
  • Inertia
  • Friction
• Inertia defines as an object's resistance to movement
• Air bags that shoot out from under the load is known as “falling the load”
• Inclines help reduce the portion of weight that must be lifted until 45 degrees of incline
• A sling used as a choker reduces vertical rating to 75%
• Slings need date of manufacture, working load markings
• Sling angles always need consideration when attaching to the load
• Slings require 30% of the total length on to the shackles
• Sling length should equal 1.5 times the distance from attachment point to load, as a general rule
• Protecting human life is the top priority for both rescuer and patient, though a rescuer’s life is prioritized
• Drag patients head first with limb-folding when using drags

Trench Work

• Steel or stainless-steel stokes baskets for high angle work are highly recommended
• OSHA 29 CFR-1926 governs all trench work, including rescues
• OSHA 29 CFR 1926 subpart P governs excavation construction and protection
• Trenches are no more than 15’ deep and incidents occur in the 6-10 ft range at less than 6’ wide
• Soil is categorized by OSHA into three types with C being the least stable
• Barrels can be placed around the victim to reduce backfilling or construction of a cofferdam
• Classifying soil is done to determine the chance of cave in
• OSHA regulation requires soil piles at least two feet from the trench lip
• The most common types of cave in are:
  • Lip slides
  • Slough-ins
  • Shear wall failures
  • Kickins
• OSHA trench requirements:
  • Soil piles and any objects 2' back from the lip
  • 5’ deep trenches protected
  • A safe exit from trenches over 4', with secured ladders extending 3' above the lip

Trench Personnel

• Awareness-level personnel can enter protected trenches up to 5’ deep in non-cave-in emergencies
• Operations-level personnel can enter protected trenches up to 8’ deep in non-cave-in emergencies
• Technician-level personnel only allowed in trenches over 8’ deep for setup or excavation
• Monitor those depths for oxygen, flammability, and toxicity
• Oxygen levels at or below 19.5% require respiratory protection/ventilation
• Flammable vapors at 10%+ of LEL require fire protection and ventilation.
• Over 15’ requires a licensed engineer

Elevators

• Building elevators are hydraulic, electric, or roped
• Most elevators in 5+ story buildings use traction elevators
• Instead of winding, traction elevators have ropes that pass a sheave, cable is secured with a crosshead beam
• Counterweight equals empty car + half the passenger load
• Modern elevators in fire-resistant hoistways per coding
• Some elevators are express without stops until 15-20 stories higher
• The elevators are know as blind shaft elevators and are common in buildings with 20+ floors
• Elevator cars have five door types:
  • Outward swinging
  • Single sliding
  • Double sliding
  • Bi-part sliding
  • Vertical bi-parting doors (for freight)
• Elish Otis invented the safety brake in the 1850s
• Governor ropes move with the elevator car
• Governor ropes pass over sheaves with flywheels in the hoistway
• Fast-moving cars have hooks to secure movement via the edges of the sheave
• Man in machine precautions should be followed when dealing with entrapment

Machinery

• Full size-up is needed, gathering all information about the machinery’s workings
• Stabilize the machinery before moving parts
• Remove/secure energy sources, with careful attention to sequence
• Provide life support and psychological first aid

High-Angle Rescue

• Walking or climbing along the crane or tower structure, while attaching safety lines (lead climbing for the attachment points)
• NFPA 1893 establishes standards for minimum breaking strengths, labeling, maintenance, and record keeping for life safety ropes and equipment such as harnesses and carabiners
• Life safety rope has replaced Kernmantle construction ropes and the figure-eight family of knots
• Multiplied forces affect the anchor point due to the hauling system
• The best spots for anchor points are structural steel and reinforced concrete elements
• NFPA 1993 covers rope and hardware, classified into three, one escape which is intended for one time usage, and then destroyed.
• The next is classified as light duty which is comparable to a single-person load.
• The third level is classified as general purpose which handle a two person load.
• Hardware requires markings indicating kilo newtons (KN) minimum breaking
• Figure-eight knots work with kernmantle rope
• The butterfly knot forms a middle-rope loop for three-directional loads over an opening
• The pulley is the heart of mechanical advantage.
• The number of ropes supporting the load determines mechanical advantage
• Conventional mechanical advantage systems require a lot of rope

Rigging Systems

• The Z-rig uses rope grabs to fix moving and fixed pulleys to create a resettable 3:1 mechanical advantage
• Another such system is the compound systems
• The simplest of these systems is known as the 3:1 piggyback

Scaffold Incidents

• Most commonly, units respond to:
  • Unoccupied Swinging Scaffolds
  • Occupied Stalled Scaffolds
  • Occupied Hanging or Off Level Scaffolds
  • Medical Emergencies at Heights

Confined Space

• Federal regulations 29-CFR 1910.146 defines a confined space as any area
  • Not designed for continuous human occupancy
  • Big enough for someone to enter and perform work
  • Has limited entry and escape
• Those spaces that are dangerous are termed as permit required confined spaces.
  • Contains or has the potential to contain a hazardous atmosphere
  • Contains material that could potentially engulf a person
  • Shaped in a way that a person could be caught or asphyxiated by inwardly tapering walls or floors the slope downward tapering into a smaller cross section
  • Contains any recognized serious health or safety hazard Atmospheric hazards include
  • Asphyxiant
  • Toxic/corrosive
  • Explosive

Oxygen

• An oxygen meter is the only safe way to detect a lack of oxygen
• OSHA 29 CFR 1910.147 regulates procedures for locking out potential discharges into work spaces
• Each rescuer using a scba 30 min cylinder must be withdrawn to fresh air in15 minutes to ensure safety, stay in direct line of sight upon exiting
• Supplied air respirators are limited to 300 feet of hose from the source by NIOSH regulation
• Entrants to confined spaces need retrieval lines

Structural Collapse Rescue

• Steel or concrete structural skeletons resist most collapse
• The structures are called framed structures where those with weight on bearing walls known as unframed because it tends to cause extensive collapses as the floors supports are taken out.
• In all structure types, failure of vertical members is more serious than horizontal
• Effect their will have on the structural stability of the rest of priority order includes
  • Bearing walls
  • Columns
  • Girders (which support beams)
  • Beams and joists
  • Floor or roof decking
• Resistance ratings for buildings in order are those of:
  • Class 1 Fireproof construction
  • Class 4 Heavy timber construction
  • Class 3 Ordinary construction
• With Class 5 wood frame buildings being considered the fourth
  • Followed by Class 2 construction metal or non combustible as the least resistant

Collapse Types

• The collapses are V-shape, A-frame, Supported lean-to, Unsupported lean-to also called cantilever, Pancake
• V-shape collapses usually occur within Class 3 or 5 with overloaded or burned wooden floor joists
• Collapse zones are at least 1 1/2 times the facing wall size.
• Bowstring truss roofs have proven deadly
• The 5 stages of the collapse rescue plan are
  • Scene survey and reconnaissance
  • Surface victim removal
  • Search of the voids
  • Selected debris removal and tunneling
  • General debris removal

Shore

• Shore whenever human life is in danger to provide a safe area of refuge
• Shore before secondary collapse
• Shore from a safe area moving toward the danger area
• Don’t cut natural shores
• Don’t move or lift when shoring, just fill in under them and let the load settle
• If in doubt-shore it
• Installed shoring is only removed when stabilized/the situation permits
• Tunneling/trenching should involve hand-powered tools if the victim is visibly clear

Crush Syndrome

• Life threatening which develops in people who have been buried with restricted circulation.
• Limb restriction releases acidic content into circulatory causing Heart arrhythmias, kidney failure, and other deadly disorders. Which is known the as 'the smiling death' because they smile now they are free from collapse only to die of a heart attack to the hospital

LCES

• Safe operations at collapses are LCES
  • Lookouts
  • Communications
  • Escape routes
  • Safe havens

Vehicle Extrication

• Maintain at least 5’ of clearance between side roof and knee bags, 10’ of clearance between the steering wheel bag, and 20” from front passenger bags

Water Rescue

• NFPA 1670 requires any water rescuers to be technician-level trained
• 4 steps of water rescue are: Reach, throw, row, and go (rescuer swim)
• Most drowning incidents occur within 100 yards of shore
• Do not wear any bunker gear
• Each rescuer needs a type lll PFD
• Never jump/drive into water
• Use polypropylene rope since it floats
• Only get close enough with a conscious patient/flotation
• Don't grab victims from the front

Signaling

• Signals include
  • One long steady tug -stop
  • Two steady pulls- Go
  • Three steady pulls-back up
  • Four steady pulls- move left
  • Five steady pulls- move right
  • Short sharp series of pulls indicates emergency

Drowning

• Using a net and rolling the unconscious person from water and onto a boat is Parbuckling
• All near drowning victims should get checked and encouraged to go to the hopsitals as they can have delated effects up 8 hours
• Submersion in water below 70 causing causes Mammalian diving to increase the of chances of pushing blood to the orgin and the heart but specifically on children over 3 yo.
• Carotid pulse is ideal as extremities is not safe due it being hard to detect
• They are not dead if they are warm and dead
• 40 degrees- can cause exhaustion in only 15 minutes
• 60 degrees temperature- can have the same result in 1 hr
• 70 degrees temperature- can have the same result in 2 hr
• Hypothermia treatment should be on any patient in water below body temperature (98.6 degrees)

Interviews

• Interviews with person and the witnesses
  • Proper interview - Accuarte approximation of the time - Where they may be
• SCUBA decides on what is dangerous
• Support one person until 3 to 4 inches and 5 to 6 inches minimum
• only 15 minutes in which the survivor can rescue in which it happens over a minimum of 5
• It is better if the recuser suiting for dry and hot to save.
• Never go in cost suits if not neccesary
• Stay in black because its safer

Ladders

• Expectation to be combative using hands
• Use hand-off so the victim can pull you
• wooden ladders can be used as it spreads the weight better
• Stay only one person in each ladder
• Wood ladders is more effective because a metal ladder will freeze faster

HAZ-MAT

• CPC is used to treat casualties
• Technician 1: Slightly higher level
• EPA and OSHA should meet the Hazmat training and do the mitigations
• Tac medic units will have Level A CPC and chemical antidotes to the patients that conduct the triages of 80 Hour related training

Detection

• Important detection for flashpoint, flammmable, gravity, and solubility
• Response
  • PPe and SCBA
  • Test hazard enviroment and then exit for better test
  • Back up with same capable tests
  • Proven is better than assumptions
  • Sample checking the floors and then the eye up and down as possible while moving slowly
• Protocols is a must for initial
• Avoid electrical emergencies (electrocutions and burns)
• Current affects the body and contact points and is to get from point A to exit point B or how long the flow in current is. High volume to low volumes.

Hazard

• Power plants and Substations are hazardous Electrocution
• Fire
• Explosion
• High pressure (gas/steam)
• Haz Mat
• PCBs (SCBA always) when at fire

Response

• Avoid it until the zone is safe
• Ensure sprinkles are functional
• No metal/ladders
• Handline equip with fog tips
• Deploy search line to tie to the outside in order to see when smoke is too thick

Insulation

• Fires burning wire Releases dioxide and the most dangerous part is at 5’ of slack and can cause a 10'
• 3 ft for climbing
• 5 ft slack can cause the two falls by 10'