Technical Rescue Operations

Special Operations & Technical Rescue

• Rescue is defined as freeing from confinement, danger, or evil
• Technical rescue requires specialized tools, equipment, and technical expertise to achieve a successful outcome
• NFPA 1670 defines technical rescue as using special knowledge, skills, and equipment to resolve unique or complex rescue situations
• Rescue involves improvisation, adaptation, and overcoming challenges

Providing Rescue Services

• Rescue squads focus on expanding hazardous materials response capabilities
• Task-force-type organizations face challenges in rostering and training multiple people for the same tasks due to unpredictable availability
• Federal system task forces must roster personnel three deep in each position
• Non-dedicated rescue squads are among the least effective rescue service methods
• Review past operations, recent trends in construction, occupancy, and hazards at least every five years to ensure the current system provides the required service level
• The heaviest piece of rescue apparatus in the fleet can weigh over 70,000 lbs
• Tool and equipment lists determine compartment size and layouts
• Vehicles needing limited power for extended periods may benefit from a smaller generator, while larger demands justify a pto-driven unit

Equipment Layout

• Keep heavy items low and related tools together
• Arrange items for one-person removal and transport of required accessories
• Tools distinguish a special unit from a line unit like an engine or ladder company

Tool Power Sources

• Common power sources for tools include:
• Gasoline
• Manual
• Battery
• Electrical
• Hydraulic
• The simplest rescue tool is the hydraulic bottle jack
• Compressed air is a powerful energy source, usable at various pressures for flexibility
• High-pressure (145 psi) airbags can lift up to 93 tons with a single bag
• Large-surface-area, low-pressure bags can lift 10 tons or more
• A typical impact wrench uses 5 cubic feet of air per minute; a 45 cf air cylinder lasts under ten minutes
• Electric power units eliminate exhaust fumes and engine noise of gasoline-driven units
• Electric-powered tools can start and stop with a switch
• Battery-powered tools add portability; common units are 18 and 24 volt

Tool Training & Capabilities

• Training with tools ensures constant fuel changes, familiarizes members with tool use at full working load, and tests tool capacity
• A hydraulic rescue tool set is a basic tool of the trade
• Rescues should have a large apparatus-mounted winch
• PTO style winches: Up to 20,000 lbs
• Electric winches: Up to 12,000 lbs
• Most winches are for industrial use with a low safety factor (2:1 or 3:1) and are not for human loads, which need safety factors of 10:1
• The Griphoist is a pulling tool with a failsafe mechanism for secure wire rope holding
• Griphoists capacity: Up to 8,800 lbs, with shearpins in handle to prevent overloading
• Blocks are large pulleys that change the direction of the pull to create a mechanical advantage
• Atmospheric hazards account for a high percentage of rescue operation casualties
• Hazards include oxygen deficiency/enrichment, flammability, carbon monoxide, and hydrogen sulfide, found in sewer gas lines and industrial processes
• The most important rescue tool is the human mind
• Missing equipment should be noted in the office log, including removal date and location sent for repairs
• SCBA should have limited maintenance by field personnel, like routine cleaning and inspections
• In-service training should balance hands-on skills and knowledge
• The first step in training motivates members to develop a rescuer attitude

Special Operation Requirements & Technical Rescue Plans

• Special operations unit members must:
• Possess strength and stamina
• Think quickly
• Coordinate actions under difficult conditions
• Recognize and manipulate SCBA parts by feel in zero visibility
• Perform most tasks blindfolded, including tying knots
• Avoid developing a superior attitude over other rescuers
• Proper written training materials is key for training programs.
• Emergency response operations are conduct using a ten-step rescue plan:
• Preparation
• Response
• Incident assessment
• Hazard control
• Support
• Gain access
• Disentanglement
• Patient packaging
• Patient removal
• Termination
• Transportation facilities, interstate highways, rail yards, and airports are scenes of numerous incidents exceeding traditional responder capabilities
• Special projects at existing facilities pose problems
• Situational analysis includes community and neighboring jurisdictions resources
• Examine needs and capabilities regionally

Incident Assessment

• Key assessment items include:
• What happened?
• How many victims are affected or trapped?
• Are they savable?
• Can they be saved with resources on hand or en route?
• What are the dangers to responders?
• Can the dangers be mitigated?
• Assess threats to rescuers and victims
• Hazard detection and analysis is critical upon arrival and as the incident escalates
• Situational awareness is key for special unit responders
• Confined space rescue statistic: 60% of victims are rescuers
• Patient packaging balances protection, speed, size, and weight

Incident Termination & Air Tools

• The first action at the termination stage is accounting for all personnel and checking on their welfare
• Events involving tragedies should include critical incident stress debriefing
• Air-powered tools are lightweight, portable, and reduce ignition potential
• Airbags come in low-pressure lifting, medium-pressure leak sealing, and high-pressure lifting styles
• The force applied by an airbag equals the internal pressure multiplied by the surface area in contact with the object lifted
• A typical low-pressure bag operates at 7 psi; a 42-inch diameter bag produces nearly 5 tons of lifting force
• Models operating at slightly higher pressure (14.5 psi) can lift as large as 34,000 lbs and up to 6 ft high
• Airbags are marked with max weight and max height, but they cannot do both simultaneously

Rigging

• Pilasters are thickened sections of brick that gives structural walls greater stiffness
• Factors for moving any object include:
• Loads
• Centers of gravity
• Load angles
• Hoisting or hauling system capacity
• Means of attaching to the load
• Rigging uses mechanical advantage techniques:
• Lever
• Inclined plane
• Pulley
• These overcome natural forces like gravity, inertia, and friction, as well as the object's weight
• Inertia is the resistance of an object to starting movement
• "Falling the load" happens when airbags teeter, shoot out from under a load, and the load falls
• Using an inclined plane helps reduce the lifting percentage
• Incline advantage lasts until the angle reaches 45 degrees
• A sling used as a choker decreases the vertical rating to 75% of the rated load rating
• All slings should be clearly marked with date of manufacture and working load
• The sling angles are important when trying to attach attachments
• Slings should never be at less than 30% on to the shackles
• Slings should be 1.5 times the length from attachment point to load as a rule of thumb
• Highest priority is always protecting human life, which includes both the rescuer and the victim or patient, where rescuer life safety is priority
• When moving a patient using drags, the head is best to moved first so that the limbs fold neatly against the body

High Angle & Trench Work

• Steel or stainless steel stokes baskets are highly recommended for high-angle work
• OSHA 29 CFR-1926 regulates all operations, including rescue operations, involving trench work
• OSHA 29 CFR 1926 subpart P governs excavation construction and protection
• Trenches are not more than 15' deep; incidents mostly occur in trenches 6 to 10 feet deep and less than 6' wide
• OSHA soil categories: A, B, C, with C being the least stable
• Barrels can be placed around victims to reduce backfilling effects, creating a cofferdam
• Soil classification's purpose is to determine cave-in hazard
• OSHA requires that soil piles need to be placed at least two feet from a trench lip
• Four cave-in types include:
• Lip slides
• Slough-ins
• Shear wall failures
• Kick-ins
• OSHA requirements:
• Soil piles and other objects must be at least 2 feet from the lip
• Trenches over 5' deep require protection
• Trenches over 4' deep need a safe exit (ramp or ladder) within 25 feet of every worker; ladders must be secured and extend 3' above the lip
• Awareness-level personnel can enter properly protected trenches for non-cave-in emergencies not more than 5' deep
• Operations-level personnel can enter trenches for non-cave-in emergencies not more than 8' deep
• Only technician-level personnel should operate in trenches over 8' deep for shoring or excavation work
• Monitor all trenches 4' or deeper for oxygen, flammability, and toxicity
• At or below 19.5% oxygen levels require respiratory protection or ventilation to find out what is displacing the oxygen
• If flammable vapors are detected at 10% or more of the LEL, the trench must be vented, and fire protection must be in place

Trench & Elevator Systems

• Unshored trenches deeper than 15' can be problematic due to lumber strength limitations
• Trenches over 20' require a licensed engineer to design the shoring system
• Elevators in commercial buildings can be hydraulic, electric, or roped
• A roped hydraulic elevator is found in small residental home
• Most elevators in buildings over 5 stories are traction elevators and not drum winding
• Traction elevators pass ropes over a drum: A sheave
• One end of the cable is secured to a called crosshead beam car frame top
• A typical counterweight weighs the same as the empty car weight plus half of the full passenger weight
• Because building codes require it, most modern elevators are enclosed in a fire resistive enclosure: A hoistway
• Some elevators start at lobby and dont stop at floor 15, 20, or higher
• Known as blind shaft elevators
• Found in buildings with 20 or more floors
• Elevator cars are commonly equipped with 5 door types
• Outward swinging door
• Single sliding door
• Double sliding door
• bi-part sliding door
• Vertical bi-parting door (freight elevators)
• Elish Otis invented the safety brake in the 1850s
• A car connects to a rope system that moves it called a governor rope
• The governor rope passes over a sheave at a hoistway top: A flywheel.
• If the cars begin to move too fast, centrifugal force spins out hooks of the flywheel, and the sheave edges are grabbed which stops the car's movement
• Man in machine runs
• Follow these basic precautions when dealing with entrapment

High Angle Rescue Protocols

• Conduct a full size-up of the equipment and gather ample information about its operation
• Immediately stabilize the machinery before attempting to move any parts
• Remove or secure energy sources to the device, but be careful of the sequence you do so
• Provide advanced life support and psychological first aid to the victim
• Walking along or climbing on a structural element, such as a tower or boom of a crane, creates attachment points for safety lines along the way: The process known as lead climbing
• NFPA 1893 establishes minimum breaking strengths, labeling, maintenance, and record keeping standards for life safety ropes and equipment.
• Life safety rope has largely been replaced with Kernmantle construction ropes and the figure eight family of knots.
• Forces on an anchor point can be multiplied by the hauling system attached to it.
• Structural steel and reinforced concrete elements are the preferred anchor points.
• NFPA 1993 includes three categories of rope and hardware:
• Escape: Intended to be used once and then destroyed.
• Light duty: Comparable to a single-person load.
• General purpose: Handles a two person load
• Hardware is required to be stamped or carry a label indicating its minimum breaking strength (MBS) expressed in kilo newtons (KN) as well as the intended use:
• Light use
• General purpose
• Escape
• The figure eight family of knots was developed to work with kernmantle rope, which, due to its relatively smooth surface, does not work well with other types of knots
• The butterfly is is used to form a loop in the middle of the rope for thee-directional load with opening suspention
• The Pulley is the heart of any mechanical advantage system.

Mechanical Advantage System Types

• Its the number of ropes that support the load that determines mechanical advantage, not the number of ropes that pass through pulley sheaves
• One drawback of conventional MA systems is they require a deal of rope to function
• The Z rig uses rope grabs to attach a moving pulley in line with a fixed pulley to create a 3:1 MA system that can be reset
• Another type of resetting system is the compound system.
• Simplest compound system: 3:1 piggyback
• Four scaffold incident types:
• Unoccupied swinging scaffold
• Occupied stalled scaffold
• Occupied hanging or off level scaffold
• Medical emergencies at heights
• Federal regulations 29-CFR 1910.146 defines a confined space as an area that:
• Is not designed for continuous human occupancy
• Is large enough and configured to work in
• Has limited entry and escape
• Dangerous confined spaces are termed as permit required confined spaces:
• contains or has potential to contain a hazardous atmosphere -Contains material that could engulf a person
• Is shaped in a way that a person could be caught or asphyxiated by inwardly tapering walls or floors, with slopes tapering into a smaller cross section
• Contains any recognized serious health or safety hazards
• Atmospheric hazards are of three types:
• Asphyxiant
• Toxic/Corrosive
• Explosive

Oxygen & Rescue Protocols

• The only safe way to detect a lack of oxygen is by using an oxygen meter
• OSHA 29 CFR 1910.147 regulates procedures for locking out potential discharges into space
• Each rescuer must withdrawl from an SCBA 30 min cylinder to fresh air in 15 min to ensure safety
• Scba wearers remain in the line of sight
• Supplied air respirators are limited to 300 feet of hose from their source by NIOSH
• Each confined space member is secured to a retrieval line
• Steel or concrete structural skeletons resist total collapse well
• Called framed structures since most of the weight is carried on the frame or skeleton
• Structures that are built to rest weight on bearing walls are known as unframed structures
• Collapses cause cause extensive floor support collapses:
• In structurers the failure of a vertical member such as a column wall is more serious than a horizontals member's failure
• Structural elements are arranged in priority order when it comes to evaluationg the structural stability effect of the rest of the building:

1. Bearing walls
2. Columns
3. Girders (which support beams)
4. Beams and joists
5. Floor or roof decking

• Building that show collapse resitance: Class 1 fireproof construction
• Second best construction for resistance is heavy timber construction class 4
• Third most collapse resistant building is class 3 ordinary construction

Building Collapses

• The fourth category in order of resistance to collapse: Class 5 wood frame buildings
• Class 2 construction metal or noncombustible demonstrates the least resistance to collapse
• Five generally recognized collapse types:

1. V-shape
2. A-frame
3. Supported lean-to
4. Unsupported lean-to(cantilever)
5. Pancake

• Buildings with wooden floor joist and class 3 or 5 can have a V-shape collapse if overloaded or burned away.
• The collapse zone size must be at least 1 ½ times the facing wall's size
• Buildings with bowstring truss roofs have proven deadly beyond sage collapsed zones
• The hip rafters span from end trusses down and out supporting walls
• Five stages of the collapse rescue plan:

1. Scene survey and reconnaissance
2. Surface victim removal
3. Search of the voids
4. Selected debris removal and tunneling
5. General debris removal

Collapse Rescue Shoring & Team Roles

• Shore whenever human life is in danger: For a safe area around victims and rescuers
• Shore before secondary collapse
• Shore from and move towards the danger area
• Dont remove natural shores
• Dont move or lift objects when shoring, just fill under them and let the load settly ontop
• If in doubt- Shore it
• Install shoring unless removal of the load safely permits removal from the area.
• Proceed with only hand powered tools for tunneling or trtrenching once you get close to the victim to ensure visibility of the victim and the tool
• Buried people in collapses with restricted circulation can be affected by life threating crush syndrome
• Builds up acidic content when the limb has restricted circulation
• When returned to the circulatory system acid goes causing deadly deadly disorders such as: Heart arrththmias, kidney failure: smiling death
• Ensure safe operations at collapses:LCES
  • L- Lookouts
  • C- Communications
  • E- Escape routes
  • S- Safe havens

Clearance Saftey & Water Rescue

• Vehicle Extrication requires at least 5’ of clearance between side roof and knee bags, 10’” of clearance between the steering wheel bag, and 20” from front passenger bags
• The requirements for a rescuer that enters water for any point for rescue can be found in NFPA 1670, which means they must have appropriate techinican training for the type of water
• Four steps of water rescue: Reach, throw, row and go.
• Drowning incidents: Most occur around 100 yards of shore
• Avoid wearing Bunker gear around water or ice except for firfighting ops
• All Rescuers require to be equipped with type lll personal flotational devices

Rescue Protocols

• Never jump or drive into the water because of potential for underwater obstructions
• Polypropylene rope is suitable for water rescue and doesn't rot underwater
• rescuers pass conscious victims a flotation device
• Never garab an active victim from the front
• Line pull signaling:
• 1 Long steady tug: Stop
• 2 steady pulls: Go
• 3 steady pulls: Back up
• 4 steady pulls: Move left
• 5 steady pulls: Move right
• Short sharp pulls Series: Emergency with back-up and need diver/swimmer
• A net attaching to the boat is one method of removing unconscious individuals: Known as parbuckling net
• Near drowning victims should be encouraged to go to the hospital, they can have a delated effect for up to 8 hr from swallowing large amounts of water
• Submersion : 70+ degree water increases survival Causing heart and brain blood rush known as Mammalian diving reflex
• Pulse check (carotid): Extremities can be hard to detect
• Not dead until warm. -40 degrees: exhaustion in 15 min -60 degrees: result in 1 hr -70 degrees: result in 2 hrs
• Hypothermia treatment: done under 98.6

Witness Interviews & Ice Rescue

• Non-scuba personnel: Should provide a witness interview.
• Ask interviewer questions to obtain
• Accurate victim time -Location before submerging
• Scuba unit decides dive time because its to dangerous: Equalize pressure reasons, health issues, etc
• Ice thickness for saftey: 3-4 inches thick and 5-6 for two people
• Survival time: 15 mins for any ice water plunge
• they cannot assist in own rescue after 5 min
• Ice rescuers exposed in cold water suit: Suitiable helmet and a retravel line
• Avoid water cost
• Trapped under the ice: Black area
• Expect combative handoff victims that rescuers may hang onto
• Lakes around the perimeter may be fined with ice ladders: work together and spread weight, best worked edged close to ice.
• Wooden ladders are best because metal ladders freeze
• HAZ MAT Level1: CPC(chemical protection clothing) members
• Level A and B clothing treated to remove causualaites Level2: Technican 1

Hazardous Material protocols

• 40 hr EPA and OSHA min training.
• haz mat technician allowed mitigation at gas leaks, spill
• Haz tac medic units
• Level A. CPC,chemical agent, antidotes ect, for triage superising
• CPC equipment

Hazardous Detection and Electrical Emergencies

• You must know how chemical properties affect things. -Solubility, flash points ,the vapor, ect.
• Response.
• Always wear full PPE and SCBA when reponding
• Test equipment against unknown sample:Before and After hazard area work
• Use same test equipment capabilites if the first one doesnt work. Assume the worst
• Sampling for the unknown constaly keep wand moving
  • Floor level, eye level and celling level movng slowly for equipment.
• Follow protocols and always know limits.
• There is 2 hazarda with electricity
• Electrocution
• Burns

Electrical Emergencies & Fire protocols

• Electrocution results from abnormal current that inteferes with currents

• Causes: Several variables

  • Contact points etc

• Voltage gradient - current dissipated as its travels

• All potential carrier system all the same regardless of how they describe:Fatal

• Potential hazards at powerplant, substation:

  • Electrocution
  • Fire
  • Explosion
  • Gas , steams
  • Haz mat

• PCBS breaks to dioxi

• Use SCBA when fires cause installations Actions taken:

  • Defensive position
  • Do not until supervisory official arrives
  • Supply facilities with standpipe and do nt enter Ensure hadlines have fire tips Deploy search line if potential of smoke

• Conduits can produce CO

• Wire insulation of PVC produces chloide acid which causes lung tissue damage

• Tower climbing cannot exceed 3’ cause fall increase