Spanish Expansion into North Africa

Spanish Occupation of Libya

• In 1212 AD, Spaniards allied with Christian forces defeated the Muslim army at the Battle of Al-Uqab
• In 1493, under King Ferdinand, they seized Granada, the last Islamic State stronghold in Andalusia
• By 1503 AD, the Spanish took complete control of Andalusia and expelled all Muslims

The City of Granada

• Granada was the final stronghold of Islamic rule in Spain
• The fall of Granada marked the end of Muslim presence in the Iberian Peninsula

The Palace Alhambra

• It is a palace and fortress complex found in Granada, Andalusia
• The Alhambra is one of Islamic architecture's best-preserved monuments
• Construction began in 1238 by Muhammad ibn al-Ahmar and took over 150 years

Expansion into North Africa

• Spaniards invaded North Africa as part of their efforts against Muslims
• In 1505 AD, the Spanish gained control of the port of Mers El-Kebir
• In 1509 AD, Pedro Navarro occupied Oran (1510 AD) and Bejaia (1510 AD)

Military Campaigns and Occupation of Tripoli

• Pedro Navarro prepared to occupy Tripoli with reinforcements from Italy
• The Spanish occupied Tripoli in June 1510 AD
  • Approximately 2,000 local residents were killed
  • Thousands were arrested
  • Mosques were looted and burned

Notable Figure - Pedro Navarro (c. 1460-1528)

• He was a Spanish military engineer known for his work in North African campaigns

Impact of the Occupation

• The Spanish occupation was limited beyond the city walls of Tripoli

Resistance from the Libyans

• The Spanish could not fully subdue the Libyans
• Libyans attempted to reclaim Tripoli but were unsuccessful because of the city's defenses
• Tajoura and Gharyan became centers of resistance

Change in Control

• In 1530 CE, control of Tripoli was entrusted to the Knights of St. John, a Catholic military order
• This ended direct Spanish rule in the city

Factors and Motivations for the Occupation

• Expansionist Ambitions: The Spanish Empire had expansive ambitions during the 15th and 16th centuries
• Post-Granada Expansion: The Spaniards aimed to extend their influence beyond the Iberian Peninsula after the fall of Granada in 1493 AD
• Countering the Ottoman Empire: Spaniards aimed to counter the growth of the Ottoman Empire
• Establishing a presence in North Africa aimed to disrupt Ottoman trade and weaken their influence
• Desire for Wealth and Resources: North African coastal cities, Tripoli, were strategic trading hubs
• Spaniards aimed to control trade routes and exploit resources like gold, silver, and agricultural products
• Religious Factors: Catholic Spain aimed to convert Muslims to Christianity and extended religious efforts into North Africa

The Knights of Saint John

• They were established in Jerusalem during the Crusades to aid poor Christians and ensure safe pilgrimage
• Over time, they evolved into a military order focused on defending Jerusalem
• In 1187, they were expelled from Jerusalem after its liberation by Salah ad-Din and relocated to Acre
• After being driven out of Acre, they resettled on the island of Rhodes in 1306
• In 1523, Ottoman Sultan Suleiman expelled the knights from Rhodes, and they moved to Rome
• They then claimed Malta as their stronghold, continuing their efforts in the Mediterranean

Decline and Expulsion from Tripoli (1551)

• The Knights of Saint John occupied Tripoli in 1530 after settling in Malta
• They ruled for 21 years, but oppressive governance led to unrest
• The people of Tripoli sought assistance from the Ottoman Empire, which sent forces led by Murad Agha from Tajoura
• Reinforcements led by Sinan Pasha and Dragut Pasha arrived with a naval fleet after Murad Agha's initial attempts failed
• Ottoman bombardments forced the knights to surrender, ending their rule in Tripoli

Historical Significance of the Knights of Saint John

• They were pivotal defenders of Christianity during the Crusades
• The expulsion from Rhodes and Tripoli highlighted the Ottoman Empire's growing dominance
• The knights solidified their power in Malta, playing a role in European military and religious history

Ahmed bin Ali al-Karamanli (1711-1745 AD)

• He established the Karamanli dynasty
• He declared himself ruler of Tripoli
• Concentrated on consolidating power, economic development, military reforms, and patronage of Islamic scholarship

Youssef Pasha al-Karamanli (1795-1832 AD)

• He succeeded Ahmed Pasha
• He undertook significant reforms and accomplishments
• He transformed Tripoli into a center of power through various initiatives

Economic Development

• Promotion of trade and commerce made Tripoli a hub for merchants
• Facilitation of a favorable business environment for economic prosperity

Infrastructure Projects

• Initiatives improved connectivity, transportation, and quality of life
• There was construction and repair of roads, public buildings, and shipbuilding

Military Reforms

• The regional army, particularly the navy, was modernized and expanded
• Defense capabilities to protect coastal areas were strengthened

Patronage of Islamic Scholarship

• Support was given for religious education through establishment of mosques and madrasas
• Intellectual and cultural activities in the region were encouraged

Diplomatic Relations

• Ties were maintained with European powers to enhance Tripolitania's international standing
• Alliances, trade agreements, and cultural exchanges were pursued

The War with America

• Conflict arose between Tripoli and America over unpaid debts and piracy issues
• America besieged Tripoli by sea but faced resistance from the Libyan navy
• The conflict ended with the Peace and Friendship Treaty, recognizing Tripoli's power

The Red Castle of Tripoli

• A significant fortress with historical importance, it served as a key governmental and administrative center

The Decline of the Karamanli Dynasty

• Economic challenges, European treaties, and internal unrest led to the dynasty's decline
• Yusuf Pasha's attempts to stabilize the economy failed, leading to revolutions and civil war
• Ottoman intervention in 1835 ended the Karamanlis' rule

Second Ottoman Era in Libya (1835 to 1912 CE)

• It began after the fall of the Karamanli family's rule
• Tripoli came directly under the control of the Sublime Porte
• Sultan Mahmud II appointed Najib Pasha as the governor of Tripoli in 1835
• The era was marked by significant taxation and political instability

Taxation and Political Instability

• Ottoman authorities imposed heavy taxes, leading to dissatisfaction
• Many Libyans migrated due to heavy burdens, increasing political unrest
• Clashes erupted between tribal leaders who gained local authority

Notable Leaders of Rebellion

• Abd al-Jalil Sayf al-Nasr's rebellion began towards the end of the Karamanli dynasty
• Ghoma al-Mahmoudi's uprising started at the start of the Second Ottoman Era

Peace Initiatives

• A peace council was convened at the Dragut Pasha Mosque, leading to a tax payment agreement
• Najib Pasha violated it, leading to his dismissal, and was replaced with Mohammed Raif Pasha
• Local conflicts continued, with many Ottoman governors being overthrown
• Hassan Pasha captured and eliminated Abd al-Jalil Sayf al-Nasr in 1841
• Ghoma al-Mahmoudi continued his struggle until his death in 1857

Administrative Reorganization

• In 1865, the province was reorganized into a "vilayet," divided into sanjaks
  • Tripoli al-Gharb, Al-Khums, Fazzan, Al-Jabal al-Gharbi, and Benghazi

Cultural Advancements

• Printing and Journalism: Newspapers were established
  • "Tripoli al-Gharb" was the first official publication in Turkish and Arabic
• Education: Primary schools and artisanship schools were established alongside Islamic institutions

Economic Growth

• Caravan and maritime trade flourished, with a transition from sail ships to steam vessels
• The cultivation of plants for paper currency production gained importance

Land Ownership Regulation

• A law in 1858 regulated land ownership, creating an entity for land registration
• Property certificates were provided to landowners

Emergence of Modern Courts

• Various courts were established, including the Sharia Court and Court of Reconciliation
• This established a framework for legal proceedings

The Sanusi Movement

• Founded by Sheikh Muhammad bin Ali al-Sanusi in 1842
• It began in Al-Baydah and expanded to Jaghbub Oasis
• It emerged as a significant force in modern Islamic thought by 1859