Podcast
Questions and Answers
Which of these sources of knowledge is based on experience and observation?
Which of these sources of knowledge is based on experience and observation?
Rationalism involves using evidence and logic to arrive at a conclusion.
Rationalism involves using evidence and logic to arrive at a conclusion.
True
What is a theory, in terms of research?
What is a theory, in terms of research?
A set of statements that describe how variables relate to each other.
A ______ is a specific prediction about the relationship between variables.
A ______ is a specific prediction about the relationship between variables.
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Match the following terms with their definitions:
Match the following terms with their definitions:
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Which type of claim states that changes to one variable are responsible for changes to another variable?
Which type of claim states that changes to one variable are responsible for changes to another variable?
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Validity refers to the consistency of a study's results.
Validity refers to the consistency of a study's results.
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What does a nominal scale measure?
What does a nominal scale measure?
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The independent variable is the variable that is manipulated by the researcher.
The independent variable is the variable that is manipulated by the researcher.
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A quasi-experimental variable is a variable that cannot be ______ to participants.
A quasi-experimental variable is a variable that cannot be ______ to participants.
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What is the main difference between a within-groups design and an independent groups design?
What is the main difference between a within-groups design and an independent groups design?
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Which type of design involves studying one IV in a between-groups design and another IV in a within-groups design?
Which type of design involves studying one IV in a between-groups design and another IV in a within-groups design?
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A main effect refers to the combined effect of two or more IVs on the DV.
A main effect refers to the combined effect of two or more IVs on the DV.
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What is the main ethical concern with the Tuskegee Syphilis Study?
What is the main ethical concern with the Tuskegee Syphilis Study?
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Which ethical principle is violated when researchers fail to treat participants with respect and dignity?
Which ethical principle is violated when researchers fail to treat participants with respect and dignity?
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The Belmont Report outlines three principles for guiding ethical decision-making in research.
The Belmont Report outlines three principles for guiding ethical decision-making in research.
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The principle of ______ ensures that research is conducted in a fair and equitable manner.
The principle of ______ ensures that research is conducted in a fair and equitable manner.
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What is the main difference between observer bias and demand characteristics?
What is the main difference between observer bias and demand characteristics?
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A double-blind design helps control for placebo effects.
A double-blind design helps control for placebo effects.
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Which of these is NOT a threat to internal validity?
Which of these is NOT a threat to internal validity?
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The tendency for extreme scores to return to the mean over time is known as ______.
The tendency for extreme scores to return to the mean over time is known as ______.
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What is the main goal of a factorial design?
What is the main goal of a factorial design?
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Study Notes
Sources of Knowledge and Ways of Knowing
- Knowledge can come from authority, common sense, intuition, rationalism, and empiricism
- Authority relies on influential individuals or groups
- Common sense is based on folk wisdom and personal experiences but isn't always accurate
- Intuition is a feeling of knowing something without proof
- Rationalism uses logic and reasoning to reach conclusions
- Empiricism relies on experience and observation to reach conclusions
Theories, Hypotheses, and Data
- A theory describes how variables relate to each other
- A hypothesis is a prediction about a relationship between variables
- Data is numerical observations, which can either support or refute a hypothesis
Variables
- A variable changes and has at least two values
- A constant can vary but only has one value
- Manipulation is controlling the variable for participants
- Measurement involves observing and recording the variable
Claims
- Frequency claims describe the number of occurrences of a variable
- Association claims describe the relationship between two or more variables
- Causal claims say changes in one variable cause change in another
Validity and Reliability
- Validity refers to the accuracy of a study's results
- Reliability refers to the consistency of study results
- Internal validity is about if a study measures intended outcomes
- External validity refers to if a study's results can be generalized
Measurement Scales
- Nominal scales categorise without a hierarchy
- Ordinal scales rank categories in order
- Interval scales have equal intervals but no absolute zero
- Ratio scales have equal intervals and an absolute zero
Experimental Design
- Independent variable is manipulated by researchers.
- Dependent variable is measured by researchers
- Control variables are kept constant.
- Quasi-experimental variables cannot be assigned but may influence
- Experimental design examples include studies of typing vs note-taking.
Design Confounds
- A study's manipulation affects more than one construct, making it hard to know the cause.
- Example: a study on flickering lights, where the light may affect attention and cause eye strain.
Operational Confounds
- A poorly defined manipulation makes the independent variable unclear.
- Example: measuring love using arousal which has other causes.
Selection Effects
- Levels of the independent variable differ due to different participants in each level.
Order Effects
- The order presentation affects the outcome, like fatigue or practice effects.
Independent Groups Design
- Different participants in each group. Example: Group 1 vs. Group 2.
Post-Test Only Design
- Participants randomly assigned to groups and tested only once. Example: GRE test.
Within-Groups Design
- Participants measured more than once.
Causal Claims and Validity
- Participants can be measured on dependent variables twice, with a manipulation.
- Construct validity ensures study variables are measured and manipulated accurately. Example: a note-taking study where the DV is measured and the IV is manipulated.
External Validity
- External validity is the extent to which findings can be generalised to other populations and settings
- Lab settings are artificial, replication with similar studies can be helpful
Statistical Validity
- Statistical validity refers to the extent to which a study's findings are statistically significant and meaningful to the researchers. Examples include effect size (d) and confidence intervals which help with assessing the magnitude and significance of the effect.
Threats to Internal Validity
- Maturation: spontaneous changes in behaviour over time.
- History: events happening during a study affecting the outcome.
- Regression: extreme scores moving towards the mean.
- Attrition: participant dropout affecting results.
- Testing: repeated testing affecting outcomes
- Instrumentation: changes in measuring instruments
- Observer bias: expectations influencing observations
Controlling for Threats
- Random assignment helps control selection and maturation effects.
- Double-blind designs control for observer bias and demand characteristics.
- Placebo control studies control for placebo effects and reactivity effects.
Factorial Designs
- Independent groups factorial involve studying at least two independent variables
- Within-groups factorial involve studying two or more independent variables
- Mixed factorial study one IV between groups and another within groups.
Interactions
- Main effects refer to the overall effect of one IV on the DV
- Interaction effects refer to the combined effect of two or more IVs on a DV.
Ethical Guidelines
- The Tuskegee Syphilis Study highlights ethical violations like withholding treatment
- Ethical guidelines protect participants from harm and exploitation.
Core Ethical Principles in Research
- Respect for persons, ensuring participants' autonomy and informed consent.
- Beneficence, promote well-being and minimise harm
- Justice, ensures fair representation and avoids exploitation
Survey and Observation Research
- Measures psychological constructs through converting feelings into numerical values
Measuring Psychological Constructs
- Convert subjective experiences into numbers
- Assign values
- Report through observations
Construct Validity of Surveys and Polls
- Association claims describe the relationship between two variables
- Assess if measure accurately captures intended concepts
- Evaluate reliability and validity of measures
Response Bias
- Solutions to the problem: reverse-worded items, neutral language, normalizing questions, and anonymity.
Observer Bias
- Expectations influence interpretations
- Example of participants' interpretations of observation behaviour
Correlation and Association
- Association between two variables
- Example: Couples who meet online having better marriages (Cacioppo et al., 2013).
The Correlation Coefficient (r)
- Value of between +1.0 and -1.0
- Positive and negative correlations, and zero correlation.
Statistical Validity
- Assesses how well data supports conclusions
- Evaluates effect size, confidence intervals
Internal Validity
- Assessing causal inferences
- Meeting three causal criteria: covariance, temporal precedence, directionality.
Moderating Variables
- When a variable's level changes due to another variable's level.
- Examples: influence of fandom and ticket sales.
Threats to Internal Validity
- Problems with experimental design, confounding variables, and selection effects, impacting conclusions
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Description
This quiz explores the various sources of knowledge and methods of understanding, including authority, common sense, and rationalism. Additionally, it covers theories, hypotheses, and the relationship between variables in data collection and analysis. Test your knowledge on the foundations of scientific inquiry.
