Solar System and Planets

Earth and Space

• This topic explores the universe and the processes shaping the planet
• It examines planets, moons, and other celestial bodies.

The Sun

• Central star of the solar system
• Provides light and heat vital for life
• Composed of hydrogen and helium, undergoes nuclear fusion
• The Sun's gravity keeps all planets in orbit

Planets

• Large celestial bodies which orbit the Sun but don't produce light
• Eight planets reside in our solar system

Inner, Rocky Planets (Terrestrial)

• Mercury: Smallest, closest to the Sun
• Venus: Similar in size to Earth, possesses a very dense, hot atmosphere "runaway greenhouse effect"
• Earth: Only planet known to support life
• Mars: The "Red Planet" with evidence of past liquid water and a thin atmosphere

Outer, Gas Giants (Jovian)

• Bigger than inner planets, primarily gas
• Jupiter: Largest planet, strong magnetic field, many moons, including Galilean moons
• Saturn: Known for prominent rings made of ice and rock particles, plus many moons
• Uranus: Ice giant, rotates on its side
• Neptune: Farthest planet, an ice giant having strong winds

Moons (Natural Satellites)

• Celestial bodies orbiting planets
• Earth has one
• Other planets possess differing numbers, some are unique in size/characteristics

Other Celestial Bodies

• Asteroids: Rocky bodies in the asteroid belt between Mars and Jupiter
• Comets: "Dirty snowballs" orbiting the Sun in elongated paths

Meteors, Meteoroids, and Meteorites

• Meteoroid: Small object, rocky or metallic, in space
• Meteor: A meteoroid that burns up in Earth's atmosphere, forming a streak of light
• Meteorite: A meteoroid surviving atmospheric passage and hitting the ground

Dwarf Planets

• Celestial bodies orbiting the Sun
• Large, nearly round but haven't cleared their orbit
• Example: Pluto

Gravity

• Attraction force that exists between objects with mass
• The Sun's gravity keeps planets in orbit
• Planets' gravity keeps moons in orbit

Earth's Structure: Layers of the Earth

• Crust: Thin outermost solid layer containing:
• -Oceanic Crust: Thinner, denser, under oceans
• -Continental Crust: Thicker, less dense, forms continents
• Mantle: Thickest, mostly solid rock with magma in upper part containing:
• -Upper Mantle: Includes asthenosphere, plates move on it
• -Lower Mantle: Solid rock under high pressure
• Core: Earth's center containing:
• -Outer Core: Liquid iron and nickel which causes magnetic field
• -Inner Core: Solid iron and nickel, with very high pressure

Tectonic Plates

• Earth's crust broken into large pieces known as tectonic plates
• They float on the semi-molten asthenosphere

Geological Processes

• Shape Earth's surface and are caused by the movement of tectonic plates
• Plate Tectonics Interactions cause:
• -Earthquakes: Sudden energy release
• -Volcanoes: Magma, ash, gases erupts from Earth's crust
• -Mountain Formation: Continental plate collisions
• -Sea Floor Spreading: Plates move apart, new crust forms
• -Subduction: Plates collide, create convergent plate boundaries
• Weathering: Rocks broken into smaller pieces (sediments)
• Erosion: Movement of broken rock by wind, water, ice, or gravity
• Deposition: Weathered material settles and accumulates

Examining Atmospheric Conditions and Climate Patterns

• Weather: Atmosphere at a particular time and place dependent on
• -Temperature indicates how hot or cold
• -Air Pressure is weight of pressing on surface
• -Humidity is water vapor amount
• -Wind Speed and Direction
• -Precipitation is any water falling from clouds
• -Cloud Cover is the amount of sky covered

Climate

• Average weather conditions over 30 or more years, influenced by
• -Latitude is the distance from equator
• -Altitude is height above sea level
• -Proximity to Oceans which can change humidity
• -Ocean and Wind currents affect temperature and precipitation
• -Mountain Ranges create dry rain shadows

Water Cycle

• Continuous water movement cycle with key processes: evaporation, transpiration, condensation, and precipitation

Atmosphere

• Gas layer around the Earth
• Composed of nitrogen and oxygen
• Protects from radiation, regulates temperature

Climate Change

• Long-term temperature and weather shifts caused by
• Increased greenhouse gases caused by burning fossil fuels and deforestation
• Greenhouse effect traps more heat

Science in Context

Real World Applications

• Connecting scientific concepts to worldwide issues:
• -Biology: DNA leads to genetic and disease diagnosis
• -Chemistry: Chemical reactions create plastics, medicines, batteries, fertilizers
• -Physics: Electricity and magnetism in electronics, forces and motion in vehicles, light in cameras

Medicine and Health

• Biology knowledge of the human body treats diseases
• Chemistry is chemical reactions in medicines and tests
• Physics is radiation used for imagery and surgery

Environment

• Biology knowledge of ecosystems help conserve nature
• Chemistry helps clean chemical pollutants
• Physics helps develop sustainable techs

Food and Agriculture

• Biology knowledge of plants help improve food production
• Chemistry creates pesticides

Global Issues

• Science plays role in several areas
• Example issues: climate change, disease prevention, food security, water scarcity, and pollution

Ethical Considerations

• Potential consequences of scientific advances
• Includes the moral implications of science

Medical Ethics

• -Genetic Engineering and its risks
• -Organ Transplants and ethical considerations for the sourcing/consent of organs needed
• -Animal Testing for medicines and ethical alternatives

Environmental Ethics

• -Pollution responsibilities in pollution prevention
• -Conservation importance for protecting biodiversity
• -Climate Change obligations to reduce gas emissions

Technology Ethics

• -Artificial Intelligence potential effects
• -Data & Privacy protections for tech that collects data
• -Resource Use ethical considerations for resource availability

Social Implications of Science

• -Access to Technology and Healthcare for all
• Scientific Communications on misinformation from science

Thinking and Working Scientifically

Scientific Inquiry

• Developing guesses, running experiments, and analyzing data

Asking Questions

• Begin scientific thought with a "why?" question

Developing a Hypothesis

• Make testable prediction with "If...then...because..." statement
• -Independent Variable: Deliberately change
• -Dependent Variable: Factor you measure
• -Control Variables: Factors that remain the same

Planning an Experiment

• Use procedure that checks hypothesis
• -Identify variables
• -Choose equipment

Conducting Experiment

• Follow process while recording the information accurately

Analyzing Data

• Calculating results
• Identifying trend patterns
• Creating graphs

Drawing Conclusions

• Decide results to support or deny what was believed
• -Explain what was found from knowledge
• -Identify any lack of perfection and mistakes
• -Suggest improvements for future investigations

Reflecting

• Reflect how the method used was suitable and results were reliable

Practical Skills

• Safely handle equipment and carry out things that need doing in a lab

Safety in the Lab

• -Wear eye goggles
• -Understand procedure
• -Know chemical hazards

Bunsens, Glassware, Equipment & Equipment Locations

• -Use Bunsen burners safely
• -Handle glassware with care
• -Know all equipment locations such as fire extinguishers

Using Common Equipment

• For Beakers and Measuring Cylinders
• For Pipettes and Burettes
• For Thermometers, Balances, Microscopes and Electrical Circuits (wires, bulbs, batteries)

Following Procedures

• Always follow each step on written instructions
• Make accurate observations
• Note all accurate readings
• Keep everything orderly

Data Interpretation

• Includes coming to correct conclusions on data

Patterns & Descriptions

• Identifying those Patterns
• Describing Relationships in a chart

Creating Charts & Plots

• Labeling axis for graph correctly
• Plot all points accurately

Calculating Values

• Involves averages and simple calculations from data

Identifying Anomalies

• Pointing out data which doesn't follow trend

Evaluating Data

• Reliabililty and validity
• If there were enough repeats
• Measurements were precise
• Controls kept constant

Linking Conclusions

• Explain findings using science known so far
• Does data support theory?

Biology

Cells and Organisms

• Basic structural and functional unit of all living organisms composed of cells

Cell Structure (Animal Cell)

• Basic animal cell structure as follows:
• -Cell Membrane is outer boundary of cell, controls what enters and leaves
• -Cytoplasm fills cell where reactions happen
• -Nucleus contains DNA and controls activity
• -Mitochondria releases energy from glucose
• -Ribosomes are where proteins are made

Cell Structure (Plant Cell)

• Cell structure is same as animal, but also contains the following;
• -Rigid Cell Wall
• -Chloroplasts site of photosynthesis
• -Vacuole large sac that stores water

Specialized Cells

• Contain different structures that adapt to specific functions
• Examples: Red blood, nerve, muscle, root hair/palisade cells

Levels of Organization

• Include: Tissues, Organs, Organ Systems, Organisms

Living Systems

• Parts of the body working together to keep us alive

Digestive System

• Breaks down food for better absorption
• Key parts: mouth, esophagus, stomach, intestines

Circulatory System

• Transports blood
• Key parts: heart, arteries, veins, capillaries

Respiratory System

• Exchanges gases giving oxygen while extracting carbon dioxide
• Key parts: lungs, trachea, bronchi, alveoli

Skeletal System

• Provides support, protection, movement
• Key parts: bones, cartilage, joints

Muscular System

• Works same way as skeletal system to enable movement of muscles/tendons

Nervous System

• Transmitting signals throughout body for actions responses
• Main: Brain, spinal cord, nerves

Excretory System

• Gets rid of waste
• Main: kidneys, bladder

Reproduction and Development

• Study of human reproduction

Human Reproductive Systems

• -Male Reproductive System produces sperm
• includes testes, sperm ducts, penis and etc...
• -Female Reproductive System produces eggs and fertilization for fetus development.
• Includes fallopian tubes, uterus, vagina

Fertilization

• The combination of both sperm and egg to form zygote

Pregnancy and Development

• Development of zygote in the uterus

Birth & Puberty

• Baby leaving mother's body
• Hormonal growth to reproduce

Health and Disease

• Factors and how diseases spread

Definition of good Health

• Physical, mental and social well-being

Disease

• Impairs body function

Types of Diseases

• Two types: Infectious & Non-Infectious
• -Infectious by pathogens bacteria, viruses, etc and spread.
• -Non-Infectious by genetics or unhealthy lifestyle but cannot spread

Spread of disease

• Understanding the 5 ways it travels
• Include: Directly physically, airborne, waterborne, food or by animals

Preventing Disease Spread

• Key methods to contain infection
• Cleaning habits & hygiene
• Clean water & sanitation
• Getting weakened pathogens
• Separation from others

Immune System

• Body's defense against pathogens
• White blood cell help

Ecosystems and Environment

• Investigate environmental issues

Ecosystems & Biological & Non-Biological (bioltc/abiotic) Factors

• Ecosystem the two factors (bioltc/abiotic) interact together
• Biological with living & Non-Biological with Non-living components. such as soil, air, water

Food Chain

• All organism in food chain and flow of energy
• Producer, Consumer and Decomposers flow through arrows

Ecosystems Interactions

• Competition through same resources
• Predator hunts for prey
• Symbiosis benefits through both mutual and harmed animals

Environmental Issues

• Humans contaminate
• Pollution comes from air, water or harmful substances

Deforestation and Conservation

• Humans cutting down trees
• Natural habits die and biodiversity declines

Physics

• Study of forces, motion and energy

How Forces and Motion are Analyzed

• Studying how force can cause an object to change direction
• measured in "N" Newtons

Types of Forces

• Weight/Gravity is mass pulling objects towards Earth which increases with mass
• Friction opposes motion and helpful but can also cause unhelpful wear
• Air drag that opposes motion through air
• Cables or string which get pulled or tightens with tension
• Normal surface acting against and perpendicular
• Gasses/liquids act with Buoyancy force
• Magnetic force moving materials with electricity Electrostatic force charged materials move with electrical

Objects Move

• Analyzing object movement using speed or measuring distance (km/h)
• Velocity is speed in set direction which increases with acceleration

Newton

• How forces affect motion
• Law of Inertia objects at rest will continue

Newton

• Acceleration depends on opposite force
• F (m*a) = m * a

Law of Motion

• Objects exerting equal force

Energy Understanding

• Measuring energy with ability to do work (Joules)

Forms of Energy

• Motion energy = (KE=21mv2)
• Types:
• -Gravitational Potential increases height
• -Elastic Potential springs or elastic increasing materials
• -Chemical Potential molecules increased bonds

Other Forms of Energy

• Thermals increased kinetics and particles in substance
• Radiants from electromagnetic radiation to view
• Electrical with electrical charge

Energy is Exchanged

• Transferred through objects converting chemical to thermal through fuels
• Light bulbs

Conservation

• Energy which cannot be created or destroyed
• Efficiency shown percentage of energy

Electrical Circuits

• Currents, magnetism, and fields

What Electricity Does

• Electric charge from atoms in Coulombs; positive/negative

Circuits With Volt

• Volt/Potential is a different circuit force using amperes

Magnetism

• Force is exerted by magnets as magnetic field (iron. cobalt)
• Electricity interacts with magnetism and a current produces field

Wave is Energy

• How sound transfers matter

Tyoes of Waves

• Waves energy transfer
• Transverse light water, sound are parallel to energy

Wave Properties

• Sound and light
• Wavelength is distance
• Frequency speed is hertz

Sound Wave

• Amplitude increases wave travels to vibrations
• Cannot travel through nothing

Sounds

• Sound is faster depending on speed of solid/gas/liquid
• Wavelength increases pitch from sound

Light Behavior

• Waves which refract & go through Transparent for visibility

Light

• Travels in approximate speed.
• Light bounces with reflection
• Passes and bends for refraction
• Electromagnetic is range wave

Lenses

• Material refracts
• Convex in middle

Chemistry

Matter Structure & Properties

• Explaining how these can alter physical, solid and liquids states

Particles

• They consist of tiny particles called molecules/atomS

Solids

• With close packed with solid position with incompressibility

Liquids

• Closer than gasses with random form

Gasses

• Far spaced moving fast

Transformed

• States of matter transform in energy with added position

2. Material Characteristics

• Explain measure without transforming
• All types liquid, gases, solids and water is state

Density

• How substance turns into a reaction

3. Reactions

• Reactions from atoms changing to form new things

Types of Chem Reactions

• Creating combo of reactants and compounds
• Breaking down with two new products
• Changing an element and the metal being more aggressive
• An acid reacts with salt and creates a water
• A substance reacting in extreme

Release of Energy

• Reactions changing the energy
• Energy is released for exothermic
• Products increase endothermic

Factors

• Affecting with how fast it reactions
• Temperature increases fast with concentration

Acids

• Taste sour but dangerous to taste
• Metals corrode and paper turns red