Soil Types in India

Black Soil

• Black soil found in Deccan Plateau, covering parts of Maharashtra, Madhya Pradesh, Gujarat, Andhra Pradesh, and Tamil Nadu.
• Deeper in upper Godavari and Krishna, and northwestern Deccan Plateau.
• Also called Regur Soil or Black Cotton Soil.
• Clayey, deep, and impermeable.
• Swelling and stickiness when wet, shrinking and cracking when dry.
• Retains moisture due to slow absorption and loss, aiding rain-fed crops during dry seasons.
• Rich in lime, iron, magnesia, and alumina.
• Contains potash but lacks phosphorus, nitrogen, and organic matter.
• Color ranges from deep black to grey.

Alluvial Soils

• Widespread in northern plains and river valleys.
• Covers about 40% of India's area.
• Deposited by rivers and streams.
• Found in Rajasthan plains, east coast deltas, and river valleys.
• Varies from sandy loam to clay.
• Rich in potash but poor in phosphorus.
• Two types in Upper and Middle Ganga plain: Khadar (new alluvium) and Bhangar (older alluvium).
• Khadar enriched by annual floods depositing fine silts.
• Both Khadar and Bhangar contain calcareous concretions (Kankars).
• More loamy and clayey in lower and middle Ganga plain and Brahmaputra valley.
• Sand content decreases from west to east.
• Color varies from light grey to ash grey depending on deposition depth, texture, and maturity.
• Intensively cultivated.

Rabi Crops

• Western disturbances bring rainfall during winter, beneficial for rabi crops (wheat, barley, mustard, gram, lentil).

Agricultural Practices

• Soil Preparation: Plowing, manuring, and leveling.
  • Plowing loosens soil and allows air penetration.
  • Manure improves nutrient quality and fertility.
  • Leveling distributes soil evenly.
• Sowing: Good quality seeds dispersed into prepared soil.
  • Manually or using machines.
  • Some seeds might need seedling stage before sowing.
• Manuring: Applying organic (cow dung) or artificial (Ammonium Nitrate) manure for high yield.
  • Other methods like crop rotation, leguminous plants, vermicompost maintain soil fertility.
  • Organic practices are more sustainable.
• Irrigation: Providing water supply from lakes, rivers, wells, ponds.
  • Careful irrigation avoids crop damage.
• Weeding: Removing unwanted plants manually or using weedicides.
• Harvesting: Cutting and gathering mature crops, manually or using machines.
• Storage: Storing harvested produce in warehouses for transportation to markets.
  • Grains separated from chaff and packed properly.

Tribal Inhabitants

• Various ethnic tribal communities inhabit Arunachal Himalayas.
• Prominent communities from west to east: Monpa, Daffla, Abor, Mishmi, Nishi, and Nagas.
• Most practice Jhumming (shifting or slash-and-burn cultivation).
• Region is rich in biodiversity preserved by indigenous communities.

About Shifting Cultivation

• Subsistence farming with temporary cultivation on a plot until soil exhaustion.
• Practised in northeastern India, including Assam, Manipur, Mizoram, Nagaland.
• Also known as Jhum Kheti, Slash and burn agriculture, fire-fallow cultivation.
• Forest land cleared, ashes added to soil.
• Cultivated areas are small.
• Short cultivation periods alternate with long fallow periods.
• Field rotation practiced instead of crop rotation.

Shifting Cultivation and Regions

• Jhoom: North-eastern India
• Vevar and Dahiyaar: Madhya Pradesh
• Deepa: Madhya Pradesh
• Zara and Erka: Southern States
• Batra: South-eastern Rajasthan
• Podu: Andhra Pradesh
• Kumari: Western Ghats of Kerala
• Kaman: Odisha

The Tarai (Terai)

• 10-20 km wide strip south of Bhabar, running parallel.
• Underground streams from Bhabar re-emerge.
• More pronounced in the east due to higher rainfall.
• Thickly forested region with diverse wildlife.
• Jim Corbett National Park (Uttarakhand) and Kaziranga National Park (Assam) are situated in the Tarai.

The Terai Marshes

• Ill-drained and damp (marshy).
• Silty soil rich in nitrogen and organic matter, deficient in phosphate.
• Most Terai land converted to agricultural land, producing sugarcane, rice, and wheat.

Alluvial Plains

• Situated south of the Tarai region.
• Comprises:
  • Bhangar (old alluvial deposits)
  • Khadar (new alluvial deposits)
• Exhibits fluvial erosional and depositional landforms (sandbars, meanders, ox-bow lakes, braided channels).

Sustainable Agriculture

• Practices and principles focused on environmental stewardship, economic profitability, and social equity.
• Examples: crop switching, organic farming, community supported agriculture.
• Techniques include crop rotation, intercropping, organic fertilization, and pest management.
• Requires high initial investment in infrastructure, equipment, and inputs.

Fotu (Photu) La & Namika La

• Two high mountain passes between Leh and Kargil.
• Fotu (Photu) La: 4,108 m
• Namika La: 3,700 m