Sociology of Crime Overview

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Questions and Answers

Which of the following statements is true about white-collar crimes?

They are often treated as less serious than street crimes. (correct)

They are exclusively committed by people in upper social classes.

They are mainly committed by people with high levels of education.

They are always handled in traditional criminal courts.

What is the main argument presented regarding the definition of crime?

Crime is solely determined by legal statutes and has no relation to social values.

Crime is primarily determined by the actions of powerful groups in society.

Crime is universally defined and understood across all societies.

Crime is a social construct and its definition can change over time and across cultures. (correct)

Which of the following is NOT a factor influencing the definition of crime?

Political ideology

Economic factors

Cultural beliefs

Natural disasters (correct)

How can the definition of crime be used to benefit powerful groups?

Powerful groups can use their influence to create laws that protect their interests. (B) Signup and view all the answers

The text argues that crime should be defined as:

Any act that causes harm to individuals or society, regardless of legal status. (D) Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following is an example of how the definition of crime can change over time?

The legalization of marijuana in some jurisdictions. (B) Signup and view all the answers

What is the main issue with defining crime solely based on legal statutes?

It fails to acknowledge that social norms and values can change over time. (C) Signup and view all the answers

The text mentions the "conflict versus consensus theoretical perspectives on law." What does this refer to?

The different approaches to understanding how laws are created and enforced. (B) Signup and view all the answers

What does Critical Race Theory examine?

The interaction between race and elements of law and power (C) Signup and view all the answers

According to Social Bond Theory, what relationship does a strong connection to society have with crime?

It decreases the likelihood of committing crime (D) Signup and view all the answers

What does Life Course Theory specifically focus on in relation to criminal behavior?

Life events and social changes affecting crime engagement (C) Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary perspective of Class Conflict Theory in the context of law?

Laws serve to maintain the interests of the ruling class (A) Signup and view all the answers

What concept does Consensus Theory emphasize about criminal laws?

They symbolize a consensus on what should be prohibited (D) Signup and view all the answers

What does the General Theory of Crime refer to?

A theory connecting crime to lack of self-control (B) Signup and view all the answers

How does Group Conflict Theory view the formation of laws?

As a result of conflict between different interest groups (A) Signup and view all the answers

What is a primary function of laws in society according to the notes?

To define and punish deviant behaviors (B) Signup and view all the answers

How is adultery treated differently in Canada compared to Saudi Arabia?

It is a crime in Saudi Arabia, but not in Canada. (B) Signup and view all the answers

What is the classification of the most serious crimes in Canadian law?

Indictable offences (D) Signup and view all the answers

According to the Schwendingers' definition, what criteria should be used to define a crime?

Violation of human rights (A) Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following is an example of how government policies can be viewed as crimes?

Laws limiting access to housing (D) Signup and view all the answers

Why are white-collar crimes often overlooked?

They do not fit the traditional idea of crime. (D) Signup and view all the answers

What is a summary conviction offence in Canada?

A minor offence with a maximum punishment of 2 years in jail. (A) Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following categories of harm is included in the broader definition of crime proposed by the Schwendingers?

Human rights violations (D) Signup and view all the answers

What fundamental human rights may be violated by harmful government policies?

Rights to food, shelter, and safety (B) Signup and view all the answers

What does Consensus Theory suggest about criminal laws?

They reflect a shared consensus within society. (C) Signup and view all the answers

According to Class Conflict Theory, the primary purpose of laws is to:

Control the common people by the ruling class. (C) Signup and view all the answers

What does the term 'Group Conflict Theory' refer to in criminology?

Laws resulting from political processes involving different interest groups. (A) Signup and view all the answers

Which area of criminology deals with understanding who is considered a 'criminal'?

The Definition of Crime and Criminals (A) Signup and view all the answers

The goal of criminology is primarily to:

Understand crime as a social phenomenon. (A) Signup and view all the answers

What is one aspect analyzed under the area of Causation of Crime?

The personality traits of individuals who commit crimes. (D) Signup and view all the answers

Which example reflects the application of the Conflict Approach in criminology?

Laws that benefit specific interest groups at the expense of others. (D) Signup and view all the answers

What does the social distribution of crime examine?

The characteristics and demographics of offenders. (C) Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary focus of green criminology?

Harmful actions against non-human animals. (C) Signup and view all the answers

Which option best describes terrorism studies?

The study of the use of violence for political, ideological, or religious aims. (B) Signup and view all the answers

What does 'Mens Rea' refer to in the context of criminal law?

The mental intent behind committing a crime. (C) Signup and view all the answers

What are the two main categories of justice discussed in the history of criminal law?

Personal Justice and Public Justice. (C) Signup and view all the answers

Which statement accurately reflects the components of a crime?

Crime involves both an act and the corresponding intent. (C) Signup and view all the answers

Under what legal condition is a person guilty of robbery?

If they assault someone with the intent to steal. (B) Signup and view all the answers

What role does societal reaction play in criminology?

It affects how laws are enforced and crime is perceived. (A) Signup and view all the answers

Which type of intent is characterized by the desire to achieve a specific goal during a criminal act?

Specific Intent. (B) Signup and view all the answers

What must be present for an act to be considered a crime?

Both act and intent (B) Signup and view all the answers

Under which condition might a person be found guilty of manslaughter instead of murder?

If the person was intoxicated (A) Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following is a potential defense to criminal charges?

Mistake of fact (C) Signup and view all the answers

What does the Insanity Defense under the McNaughton Rules involve?

Not perceiving the nature and quality of the act (B) Signup and view all the answers

Which scenario exemplifies the concept of necessity as a defense?

A person steals food to survive during a famine (A) Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following statements about reckless actions is true?

Recklessness is judged by whether a 'reasonable person' would have acted the same (C) Signup and view all the answers

Which statement about consent in criminal law is accurate?

Consent cannot be given to participate in a crime resulting in death (B) Signup and view all the answers

What distinguishes strict liability offenses from other types of offenses?

They do not require the establishment of intent (C) Signup and view all the answers

Study Notes

Criminological Theories

Critical Race Theory (CRT) is an intellectual movement examining how race and racism intersect with law, society, and power structures.
Hegemony, by Antonio Gramsci, operates through ideologies, culture, and institutions to shape beliefs and values aligning with the ruling class. It maintains power through consent and cultural leadership, not just force.
Social Bond Theory examines the connection to society. Strong connections decrease the likelihood of crime, while weak connections increase it. Individuals with weak connections feel they have nothing to lose.

Criminological Theories (continued)

Sexual Drive Theory suggests that uncontrolled sexual drives can lead to crime.
General Theory of Crime, also known as self-control theory, connects crime to the lack of self-control.
Life Course Theory examines how life events, transitions, and social changes influence an individual's trajectory, including criminal behavior. It analyzes why individuals engage in and desist from crime over their lifespan.

Criminological Theories (continued 2)

Class Conflict Theory views laws as tools used by the ruling class to maintain privilege and control "common people." Examples like the Iranian government suppressing protestors, where laws potentially benefit leaders seeking to stay in power.
Group Conflict Theory views laws as the result of political processes and conflicts between interest groups. Examples include conflicts between liberals and conservatives or environmental protection versus business interests.

Crime, Criminals, and Criminology

A definition of law is a set of rules assigned by the government for societal adherence and obedience.
Laws aim to prevent or address harmful behavior arising from deviation or departure from social expectations.
Societies function through social norms, rules, regulations, and laws.
Deviance is any behavior contradicting societal norms or rules.

Crime - What is it legally?

Historically, harmful actions against others were a private matter, but gradually certain harmful acts came to be defined as criminal and the state/province took on the responsibility for enforcing and prosecuting harmful actions considered against society as a whole.
The legal definition of crime is an (intentional or reckless) act or omission that violates criminal law and is punishable.
Omission examples include failing to provide for a child.

Crime - What is it legally? (continued)

In Canada, crimes are primarily defined by the Criminal Code of Canada.
Regulatory violations are technically not crimes unless they violate criminal law.

The Shifting Nature of Crime

Crimes are socially defined, often contested, and subject to change.
Examples like the legalization of cannabis illustrate how social norms and values shape and redefine criminal acts.
The law's definition of crime is not arbitrary, with many actions being widely considered as problematic across various countries, despite differences in specific laws.

The Shifting Nature of Crime (continued)

Crime falls under the broader category of deviance, encompassing actions that violate social norms, rules, and laws.
Laws are influenced by cultural and societal norms and values.
Some crimes considered serious in one country may be less serious in another (e.g., rape in Canada vs. India).

Classification of Crimes

English and American law often categorize crimes as felonies (serious) and misdemeanors (less serious).
Canadian law employs indictable offenses (serious, e.g., terrorism) and summary conviction offenses (less serious, e.g., public nudity). Summary conviction offenses typically result in penalties not exceeding two years in jail and/or a $5,000 fine.

Human Rights Violation as Crime

Some scholars argue that human rights violations should be considered crimes.
This broader definition considers harmful actions as crimes, such as government policies fostering conditions like poverty or homelessness.
These policies might violate basic human rights to food, shelter, and safety..

Why Some Gov't Policies Are "Crimes"

Government policies that violate basic human rights, such as access to food, shelter, and safety, should be considered crimes.
Examples include policies restricting access to affordable housing, which can lead to widespread homelessness and cause unnecessary suffering and inequality.
Or policies neglecting essential healthcare programs, potentially leading to preventative suffering and even deaths.

Is White-Collar Crime Really a Crime?

White-collar crime is often overlooked because it doesn't align with the traditional notion of crime.
Criminal law often focuses on street crimes, leading to a perception that crime arises mainly in lower social classes.
Many important crime committed by middle and upper class people in business, e.g. fraud or embezzlement, are often overlooked.
These crimes are not always treated like typical crimes and often fall outside of the domain of criminal courts.

For Criminological Research Purposes, Who is a Criminal?

Not all social harms are considered crimes.
Not all criminal acts are harmful.
This raises questions about who should be considered a criminal (e.g., individuals charged with a crime but not convicted; or those who commit a crime but remain uncharged; or those who violate workplace safety protocols).

Reflection Questions

General questions about the definition and impact of criminal acts, including why some acts are considered crimes, why some are not, and why are there differing reactions to different criminal behaviors.

Part III

What Is Criminology?

Criminology is the systematic and scientific study of crime as a social phenomenon.
Its goals include understanding and documenting the causes and effects of crime, and how society responds to it.
Criminology's scope encompasses the process of making, breaking, and reacting to laws.

6 Major Areas of Criminology

Defining crime and criminals.
Understanding the origins and role of law.
Examining the social distribution of crime (e.g., traits, trends, patterns).
Investigating causes of crime and criminality.
Evaluating patterns of criminal behavior (offenders and victims).
Analyzing societal responses to crime.

Emerging Fields of Criminology

Green Criminology: Includes harmful actions against animals and the physical environment.
Terrorism Studies: Covers acts of violence against civilians for various goals (political, ideological, or religious).
Surveillance Studies: Examines constant surveillance and how it affects behavior.

Historically, societies have addressed crime in various ways.
In Canada, the Constitution Act (1867) guides how people accused of crimes are handled (in the CJ system).
Criminologists study institutions like police, courts, and corrections systems, extensively.

Brief History of Criminal Law

Early societies often used personal justice systems.
Public justice systems emerged, evolving from concepts like the Norman Conquest (in England).

The Mental Element in Crime (Mens Rea)

Mens Rea refers to the intent to commit a crime.
Key aspects include intention, knowledge, and recklessness.
General intent refers to the intent to commit a general criminal act, and specific intent is the intent to achieve a specific goal while committing the act.
The intent at time of the criminal act is critical.

Intent

Crime involves a combination of act and intent.
Individuals who act with intent to commit an indictable offense are guilty under criminal law.

Knowledge

Knowledge of the false information given in judicial settings constitutes the crime of perjury.

Recklessness

A test for recklessness involves evaluating whether the action aligns with a reasonable person's standards and not simply whether the individual intended the consequences.

General Principles of Criminal Liability

Criminal liability is based on the principle of individual responsibility.
Crime requires both an act and intent (usually).
Individuals cannot be held fully accountable for their thoughts. Examples include freedom of speech.
An individual is not liable unless they intended the act or were reckless.

Strict Liability Offences

Absolute/strict liability offences are exceptions to the requirement of intent, primarily seen in regulatory offenses, illustrated by the Verdun-Jones Case.

Defenses to Criminal Charges

Common defenses to criminal charges, including technical defenses (e.g., illegally obtained evidence; unreasonable searches).
Factors like age or insanity can be mitigating factors in criminal cases—e.g., using insanity as a defense, if found NCRMD.
Self defense is a defense that should be proportionate, and only use the minimum force required to defend yourself.

Defenses: Duress, Necessity

Duress is a defense where an individual is forced into committing a crime due to threats of harm or death to them or others.
Necessity is a defense where an individual commits a crime to prevent a greater harm, having no reasonable alternative.

Insanity Defence

This defense suggests the person is not responsible for the crime due to mental disorder.

Insanity Defence (Willard Case) / McNaughton Rules

Insanity defenses are legal, not psychological assessments.
Based on the McNaughton Rules - in a legal defense of insanity, the individual lacked understanding of the nature of the act, or knowingly committed a wrong at the time, with the required intent.
The Willard Case highlights the complexity of such defense usage.

Intoxication

Intoxication can be a factor in negating intent in some cases, but individuals can still be found guilty of lesser charge offences, even though intoxication could have alleviated specific intent required for the primary charge.

Mistake of Fact

Mistaking a fact can be used as a defense in a criminal trial, but ignorance of the law is not.
This focuses on the factual circumstances, not legal knowledge of the accused.

Self Defence

Self-defense must not involve harmful intent beyond the level necessary for protection.
Proportionality is key, and the threat must be immediate and serious.
The Lavelle Case discussed the Battered Wife Syndrome when using self defense arguments, and the ruling allowed expert witness testimony on the issue because it highlighted a real issue of proportionality, threat, and intent.
The Nelson Case highlights self-defense considerations.

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Description

This quiz explores key concepts in the sociology of crime, including white-collar crimes, theories of crime definitions, and various theoretical perspectives such as Critical Race Theory and Life Course Theory. Test your knowledge on how definitions of crime evolve and the influence of societal factors on criminal behavior.