Sociology Midterm Exam Review

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Questions and Answers

What is the fundamental nature of social reality according to positivists?

  • Social reality is chaotic and unpredictable.
  • Social reality is constantly changing and evolving.
  • Social reality is characterized by regularity and order. (correct)
  • Social reality is defined by individual experiences and interpretations.

What is the goal of positivist research?

  • To critique and challenge existing power structures and inequalities.
  • To understand the subjective meanings and interpretations of individuals.
  • To promote social change and improve the lives of individuals.
  • To identify and explain the patterns and regularities in social phenomena. (correct)

What is the relationship between research and theory in the positivist approach?

  • Research and theory are independent of each other, representing different aspects of knowledge.
  • Research and theory are intertwined, with each informing and shaping the other. (correct)
  • Research precedes theory, generating data that can be used to develop theoretical explanations.
  • Theory precedes research, providing a framework for data collection and analysis.

What is the 'wheel of science' concept referring to?

<p>The dynamic relationship between research and theory in the positivist approach. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following examples would a positivist use to illustrate the concept of 'regularity' in the social world?

<p>The consistent gender gap in political representation. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the role of 'applied research' in the positivist paradigm?

<p>To develop practical solutions to real-world problems. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

According to the positivist perspective, what is the primary purpose of social scientific research?

<p>To understand and explain social phenomena. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the key concept the positivist argument is based on?

<p>Causal Laws (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What does the term 'nomothetic' refer to?

<p>The search for universal laws (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What analogy is used to illustrate the idea that human beings do not have free will?

<p>A leaf blown by the wind (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

According to the passage, why do some people question the possibility of making accurate long-term predictions about society?

<p>They emphasize the complexity of human interactions, making it difficult to identify recurring patterns in history. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How does the text describe the relationship between the positivist's view of science and the concept of free will?

<p>The existence of free will is incompatible with positivist scientific principles. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the main argument presented about the nature of scientific laws from a positivist perspective?

<p>Scientific laws are subject to revision as new evidence emerges, but they still offer a basis for understanding. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following BEST describes the "nomothetic approach" to explanation?

<p>Focusing on identifying general laws that govern social behavior (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What does the passage suggest as a criterion for a good theory in the positivist framework?

<p>It should be applicable across different time periods and explain various social phenomena. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the main point of the passage about the nature of humans as understood by positivists?

<p>Humans are complex individuals who exhibit both self-interested and altruistic behaviors depending on the situation. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the key difference between deductive reasoning and inductive reasoning?

<p>Inductive reasoning is more reliable than deductive reasoning. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is a specific prediction that can be derived from the theory that poverty is caused by a lack of marketable job skills?

<p>Individuals with limited job skills are more likely to experience poverty. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following is NOT mentioned as an example of a social phenomenon that was difficult to predict?

<p>The 2016 US presidential election (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the main argument presented for the difficulty in predicting historical events from a positivist perspective?

<p>Human actions are complex and difficult to model. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the main criticism of the idea that human beings do not have free will?

<p>It is a deterministic view that denies the complexity of human nature. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

According to the passage, what is the key characteristic of a good theory in the positivist framework?

<p>It should be generalizable across different historical contexts. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the main reason why positivists believe that scientific laws are often revised?

<p>Our understanding of the world is constantly evolving. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the main difference between the inductive and the deductive approach?

<p>The inductive approach uses specific examples to derive a general theory, while the deductive approach uses general theories to explain specific examples. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following statements about the inductive approach is true?

<p>The inductive approach is used to generate new theories based on observations. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary goal of the inductive approach?

<p>To develop new theories from empirical observations. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following is an example of an inductive approach in the context of poverty?

<p>Developing a theory of poverty based on interviews with individuals living in poverty. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

In the context of the group exercise mentioned, what would be an example of using observation to create a theory about political ideology?

<p>Observing how people talk about political issues in their daily lives. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

The text states that positivists claim that we can never "prove beyond any doubt" that a theory is true. What is a likely reason for this claim?

<p>They acknowledge the possibility of alternative explanations or future data that may challenge a given theory. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Why is it difficult to establish causality?

<p>Because it is impossible to control all variables in the real world. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Why is it important to be aware of the limitations of the inductive approach?

<p>Because the inductive approach can lead to biased or inaccurate conclusions. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Flashcards

Positivism

A paradigm asserting that social reality has regular patterns and order.

Socratic method

A form of cooperative argumentative dialogue to stimulate critical thinking.

Social scientific research

The study of social phenomena to uncover patterns and explanations.

Regularities in society

Consistent patterns observed in social behavior and structures.

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Wheel of Science

A concept illustrating the cyclical relationship between research and theory.

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Applied research

Research aimed at solving practical problems, often linked to finding patterns.

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Social patterns

Observable trends in demographic and societal behaviors.

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Predictable change

Even societal changes follow recognizable patterns over time.

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Forecasting Challenges

Difficulties in making accurate long-term predictions about human society due to complexity.

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Scientific Laws

Principles that are viewed as eternal if considered correct, but are often revised.

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Good Theories

Theories that can explain events across different time periods.

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Old Positivist View

The belief that human beings are primarily self-interested and rational.

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New Positivist View

A more nuanced perspective that humans can be self-interested or altruistic depending on the situation.

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Rational vs. Irrational

Concept that human actions can be both rational and irrational based on context.

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Evolutionary Heritage

The idea that human nature is shaped by evolutionary processes.

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Determinism

The belief that all events, including human actions, are determined by causes external to the will.

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Causal laws

Principles that govern the cause and effect relationships in nature.

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Nomothetic approach

A method in scientific research that seeks to establish laws or general principles to explain phenomena.

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Deductive reasoning

A logical process where a general theory leads to specific predictions.

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Theories and social reality

Positivists argue that explanations of social phenomena must be based on universal laws.

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Law-like statements

Statements that illustrate universal laws in social science, such as causation.

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Prediction from theory

Using a theory to forecast specific outcomes in real-world scenarios.

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Theory Testing

An approach used to validate hypotheses by collecting data to support or refute them.

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Deductive Approach

A reasoning method that starts with a general statement and examines the possibilities to reach a specific conclusion.

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Inductive Approach

A reasoning method that begins with specific observations to create a broader generalization or theory.

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Causality

The relationship between cause and effect where one event leads to the occurrence of another.

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Provisional Theories

Current theories held until better ones are proposed, acknowledging uncertainty in knowledge.

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Inductive Logic

A form of reasoning that produces broad generalizations from specific observations.

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Theory Creation

The process of developing new theories based on observations rather than testing existing ones.

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Study Notes

Midterm Exam Information

  • First midterm on February 4
  • Two-hour exam
  • Multiple choice and short answer questions
  • Readings: Chapters 1, 9, and 10
  • All class materials from January 28 and including the day before the midterm

Sociological Paradigms

  • No consensus on what sociology should be in regards to science.
  • Three main paradigms: Positivist, Interpretive, and Critical; all claim to be scientific.

Socratic Method & Questions

  • Used to learn about the three paradigms.
  • Focused on seven questions.
  • Started with positivism.
    • Q1: Why should one conduct social scientific research?

Question 2: Fundamental Nature of Social Reality

  • Positivists: Regularity and order underlie the world.
  • Not chaotic or unpredictable.
  • Examples: Planet revolution, relatively stable birth rates.
  • Called "regularities" or "patterns".
  • Given examples: more men than women in House of Commons, more women than men enrolled in university, and rich people live longer.

Positivism: Science's Purpose

  • Find and explain patterns in human behavior.
  • Research: finding the pattern
  • Theory: explaining the pattern
  • Example (movie): "Pi"
  • Positivists see change as predictable.

More About the Positivist Paradigm

  • Patterns in human behavior, even over time,
  • Societies change, even the solar system evolves
  • Positivists believe that change is predictable and follows patterns.
  • Questioning agreement that the world is regular and ordered.
  • Difficulty in making long-term predictions about society and why.
  • Examples of events that were difficult to predict
  • Historians find it difficult to discern patterns in history
  • Positivists still believe patterns exist in Social Life

Positivism's Principles

  • Regularities and order in the world; laws and principles do not change.
  • Scientific laws are considered "eternal laws"
  • Problem in that laws may need to be revised.
  • Good theories can explain current, past, and future situations.

Question 3: Nature of Human Beings

  • The positivist answer has evolved.
  • Old positivism: people are self-interested and rational.
  • New positivism: self-interested in some situations, but altruistic in others.
  • Rationality is one aspect of human nature, but also potential irrationality.
  • Human nature may be a result of evolutionary heritage.

Free Will vs. Determinism

  • Positivists often say that we do not have free will.
  • All behavior is subject to causal laws.
  • We are subject to the laws of nature.
  • Humans are like leaves blown in the wind.
  • Determinism: the strict positivist position

Question 4: Explaining Social Reality

  • Positivists say scientific explanations are based on universal laws.
  • They are characterized by law-like statements.
  • Examples include statements such as “X causes domestic violence”
  • Theories may be complex which involves many variables.

Nomothetic Approach

  • This approach searches for universal laws.
  • Based on Greek word “nomos” meaning law.
  • Positivism is deductive.
  • Deductive reasoning starts with a general theory that is used to make specific predictions.

Poverty Example

  • Positivists will develop a theory, predict aspects of it, and then gather evidence to test using deductive reasoning.
    • example theory: Lack of job skills = poverty
  • Then predictions that can be tested can be made.

Inductive vs Deductive Reasoning

  • Inductive approach starts with specific observations to develop a general theory.

Question 5: Truth and Falsehood in Explanation

  • Generally, positivists believe that theories are never proven absolutely true.
  • Theories are provisional (temporary), to be replaced by better explanations.
  • Theories are supported if they are logically consistent and match observations.
  • Difficult to establish causality is a factor.

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