Sociology: Max Weber and Ideological Concepts

Max Weber

• He suggested reasons for obeying authority.
• Charismatic authority is based on inspiring individuals rather than their social role.
• The belief that professors are wise and experienced, ensuring compliance with their instructions.

Symbolic Universe

• A shared set of beliefs, myths, values, and philosophies within a society.
• Explains and justifies the social order, providing understanding for individuals.
• Peter Berger and Thomas Luckmann use this term to describe how shared beliefs and values protect the existing social order.
• Provides explanations for the behavior of professors, law, and other institutions.

Dominant Ideology

• A system of beliefs, values, and practices that supports the existing social system.
• Defends the authority of those in power.
• Karl Marx linked cultural symbols and values to the mode of production and its emphasis on property, profit, and money.

Ideological Hegemony

• The control of a society by the dominant class through intellectual and ideological means.
• Antonio Gramsci suggested that the ruling class maintains dominance by controlling institutions like education, law, and religion, shaping the worldview of the masses.
• Subaltern classes are fed the beliefs and values of the dominant class, unintentionally aiding their dominance.

Encoding and Decoding

• Encoding involves hiding messages about societal norms within cultural items.
• Decoding refers to how these messages are understood, often influenced by individual contexts.
• Stuart Hall argued that individuals don't simply accept encoded messages uncritically, sometimes decoding them in ways that challenge the intended message.

Dominant Culture

• Values, norms, beliefs, and behaviors held by the ruling group in society.
• Others are expected to conform to this culture, considered the "default" and "natural".
• Privileges its way of life and treats it as normal, often portraying subaltern groups as secondary or deficient versions.
• Freud's concept of "penis envy" exemplifies this, suggesting that women desire to be men.

The Eternal Feminine

• A mysterious essence attributed to women, often portrayed in art, literature, and poetry.
• Simone de Beauvoir criticized this concept, highlighting its portrayal of women as secondary to men.
• Women are often depicted as muses who inspire men, ignoring their own lives and internal experiences.

Orientalism

• The way white Europeans viewed the rest of the world as mysterious or primitive, associating “normalcy” with European culture.
• Edward Said argued that this perspective positions Europeans and North Americans as the norm.

Alterity

• The way dominant groups depict others as different or less than human.
• This creates a sense of contrast between the dominant group and the "other".
• Often reduces minorities, dominated groups, and outsiders to stereotypes.
• Emmanuel Levinas emphasized the centrality of alterity in defining dominant cultures, highlighting the "self" and "other" distinction.
• Stigmatizes "other groups" through dehumanization.

Collective Consciousness

• A shared set of values, beliefs, and ideas that are considered extremely important and obvious in a society.
• Durkheim and structural functionalists viewed these institutions as positive for society.
• Examples include the widespread belief that stealing and murder are wrong and cannibalism is appalling.

Culture

• The shared universe of symbols, values, beliefs, and practices within a society.
• Includes arts and entertainment, often providing insights into societal ideals.

High (Elite) Culture

• Arts enjoyed by high-status groups in society, often associated with sophistication and refinement.
• Examples include opera and fine wine.

Pop (Mass) Culture

• Less exclusive entertainment enjoyed by lower-status individuals, often perceived as simplistic and lacking artistic merit.

Conspicuous Consumption

• The practice of buying expensive and showy products to demonstrate wealth and status.
• Thorstein Veblen theorized that conspicuous consumption arose with the wealthy class, asserting status through their spending habits.
• These goods called Veblen goods are consumed to elevate one's standing in society.

Capital

• A resource invested to generate more of itself.
• Pierre Bourdieu combined Marx and Weber to create a framework for different forms of capital.
• Economic: money or resources invested for profit (e.g., a factory).
• Social: status and connections within a social network (e.g., knowing a prime minister).
• Cultural: knowledge of high culture, art, and education (e.g., a university degree).
• Symbolic: items or ranks with specific meanings within a cultural group (e.g., the crown, the pope).

Habitus

• Deeply ingrained habits, customs, and ways of behaving acquired during childhood, reflecting one's background.
• Upper classes develop a specific habitus, including knowledge of social networks and key individuals.
• Bourdieu argues that most cultural capital is acquired unconsciously during early years.
• Examples include knowledge of etiquette and high-status behavior in social settings.
• This knowledge is often passed down through families, providing an advantage to upper-class children.

Cultural Industry

• Adorno and Horkheimer's term describing the modern entertainment industry as a mass-production system for "art" (e.g., film, music).