Sociology Lecture 7: Power and Minorities
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Questions and Answers

What is the primary factor that determines the entiativity of a group?

  • The number of members in the group
  • The frequency of group meetings
  • The level of cohesiveness among group members (correct)
  • The similarity of goals and objectives

    • According to the collectivist view, what is the primary focus of group processes?

  • Group structures and norms
  • Unique properties of people's feelings, thoughts, and behavior as group members (correct)
  • Interpersonal relationships and interactions
  • Individual personalities and traits

    • What is the primary function of roles in a group?

  • To provide a sense of identity and belonging for individual members
  • To create conflict and competition among group members
  • To establish a clear hierarchy and chain of command
  • To interrelate with other members for the greater good of the group (correct)

    • What is the primary factor that determines an individual's status in a group?

    <p>The consensual evaluation of their prestige as a role in the group</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What type of group is characterized by a sense of solidarity and unity among members?

    <p>Intimacy group</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary focus of the individualistic view of group processes?

    <p>The interpersonal relationships and interactions among group members</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a key feature of loose associations?

    <p>A collection of unrelated individuals</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a key factor that contributes to group cohesiveness?

    <p>The level of attachment and entiativity among group members</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following types of influence is characterized by a desire for accurate judgment and is susceptible to social pressure?

    <p>Informational influence</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary difference between compliance and conformity?

    <p>Compliance is superficial, while conformity is deep-seated</p> Signup and view all the answers

    According to Moscovici, what is the key factor in controlling others' behavior through domination?

    <p>Power</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What type of culture is characterized by a high level of social coordination and a strong sense of normative influence?

    <p>Tight culture</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following is a factor that contributes to the development of social norms in a group?

    <p>All of the above</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary function of social norms in a group?

    <p>To regulate behavior and relations</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the term for the process of influencing attitudes or behavior by the real or implied presence of others?

    <p>Social influence</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the term for a group that an individual uses as a reference point for their own behavior and attitudes, and may be either positive or negative?

    <p>Reference group</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary consequence of the Dunning-Kruger effect?

    <p>Overestimation of one's abilities</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary purpose of self-presentation and impression management?

    <p>To manipulate others' perceptions</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the main characteristic of an independent self-concept?

    <p>Determined by differences from others</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary function of social norms?

    <p>To regulate behavior</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the term for the process of switching between different cultural identities in different situations?

    <p>Frame-switching</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary threat to our self-concept?

    <p>Failures</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary function of expressive purposes in self-presentation?

    <p>To socially validate our self-concept</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary characteristic of interdependent self-concept?

    <p>Determined by relationships with others</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary reason why deviate in-group members are disliked more than deviate outgroup members?

    <p>Because they are seen as violating the group's norms and values</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following is a characteristic of marginal, non-prototypical members in a group?

    <p>They have few attributes that characterize the group</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary factor that determines an individual's status in a group, according to expectation states theory?

    <p>Their specific status characteristics, such as relevant skills and experience</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following stages of group development is characterized by post-conflict consensus, cohesion, and a shared purpose?

    <p>Norming stage</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary effect of the mere presence of others on individual performance?

    <p>It increases motivation and effort</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary factor that contributes to group cohesiveness?

    <p>The shared goals and objectives of the group</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following is an example of a diffuse status characteristic?

    <p>Wealth and social status</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary reason why groups often experience a decrease in performance and motivation over time?

    <p>Social loafing and diffusion of responsibility</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary reason for social loafing in group tasks?

    <p>Reduction of own effort when working on a collective task where outputs are pooled</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following is a characteristic of a group susceptible to groupthink?

    <p>Excessive cohesiveness</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary difference between a leader and a boss?

    <p>A leader directs behavior through asking, while a boss directs through commanding</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary reason for the glass ceiling effect?

    <p>Discrimination and bias against women and minorities in the workplace</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary consequence of group polarization?

    <p>Groups tend to be more extreme in their attitudes</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary factor that contributes to group cohesiveness?

    <p>Similarity of goals and values among group members</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary explanation for group polarization according to social identity theory?

    <p>Conformity phenomenon, where individuals converge on what 'we' think</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary consequence of the Ringelmann effect?

    <p>Individual effort decreases as group size increases</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary function of androgens and estrogens in the human body?

    <p>To exert effects on gene expression and protein activation</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the name of the syndrome characterized by an extra X chromosome in males?

    <p>Klinefelter syndrome</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the name of the gene responsible for determining the development of testis in males?

    <p>sry</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary effect of estradiol on genital development?

    <p>Development of female genitalia</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the term for the long-lasting structural changes produced by hormones?

    <p>Organizing effects</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the term for the temporary changes produced by hormones?

    <p>Activating effects</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary function of emotional expressions?

    <p>To communicate our needs to others and to understand our own needs and actions</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the key difference between the left and right hemispheres of the brain in terms of emotional processing?

    <p>The left hemisphere is associated with behavioral activation, while the right hemisphere is associated with behavioral inhibition</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary advantage of cultural selectivity in emotion recognition?

    <p>It enables us to recognize emotions more quickly in people from our own culture</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary function of the fear response?

    <p>To alert us to potential dangers and prompt us to escape</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the result of female rats being exposed to testosterone during the sensitive period?

    <p>Partly masculinized anatomy and behavior</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the key characteristic of universal emotions?

    <p>They are recognized and expressed similarly across cultures</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the characteristic of Congenital Adrenal Hyperplasia (CAH) in females?

    <p>Masculinization of external genitalia and male-typical behavior</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary role of emotions in decision-making?

    <p>To provide an intuitive and subjective evaluation of options</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the role of dihydrosterone in the development of external genitalia in males?

    <p>It is converted from testosterone to develop male genitalia</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the result of Androgen Insensitivity Syndrome in genetic males?

    <p>Female appearance and gender identity</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary function of hormones during puberty?

    <p>Maturation of the genitals and development of secondary sex characteristics</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the effect of 5-alpha reductase deficiency on genetic males?

    <p>No development of male genitalia</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary function of the neuromuscular junction?

    <p>To facilitate the transmission of excitatory neurotransmitters that cause muscle contraction</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which type of muscle is responsible for controlling the movement of the body?

    <p>Striated muscles</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary function of oligodendrocytes in the central nervous system?

    <p>To create myelin sheaths around axons</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the function of the myostatin gene in muscle development?

    <p>To inhibit muscle growth and development</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the characteristic of fast-twitch muscles?

    <p>They rely on anaerobic energy and fatigue quickly</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the term for the process of inducing or preventing the occurrence of an action potential in nerve cells?

    <p>Optogenetics</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the function of antagonistic muscles?

    <p>To work together to produce movement in different directions</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary function of the node of Ranvier in the structure of a neuron?

    <p>To allow the signal to jump from one node to the next</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is unique about the human olfactory system?

    <p>Olfactory stimuli are reported directly to the olfactory bulb</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary function of astrocytes in the brain?

    <p>To control the dilation of blood vessels</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary purpose of the blood-brain barrier?

    <p>To protect the brain from dangerous chemicals and viruses</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary characteristic of Purkinje cells in the cerebellum?

    <p>They are important for precise timing of movements</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary function of the cell membrane in a neuron?

    <p>To insulate the neuron from the environment</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary function of microglia in the brain?

    <p>To regulate the immune system in the brain</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary function of thermogenesis in the body?

    <p>To control body temperature through shivering and non-shivering mechanisms</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary reason why endothermic animals can maintain a body temperature higher than their environment?

    <p>Because they have physiological mechanisms such as shivering and restricting blood flow to the skin</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Why is it important for the body to maintain a stable temperature of around 37°C?

    <p>Because it is the optimal temperature for oxygen release from hemoglobin to the muscles</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What would happen if the body temperature were to rise to 41°C?

    <p>Proteins would break their bonds and lose their properties</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary difference between ectothermic and endothermic animals?

    <p>Ectothermic animals regulate their body temperature through behavioral mechanisms, while endothermic animals regulate their body temperature through physiological mechanisms</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary function of the brain in regulating body temperature?

    <p>To sense changes in body temperature and trigger compensatory mechanisms</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary reason for the masculinization of external female genitalia in Congenital Adrenal Hyperplasia (CAH)?

    <p>Failure of negative feedback mechanism in adrenal glands</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the effect of dihydrosterone on genital development in males?

    <p>Masculinization of external genitalia</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary characteristic of genetic males with Androgen Insensitivity Syndrome?

    <p>Feminization of external genitalia and behavior</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the term for the long-lasting structural changes produced by hormones during prenatal development?

    <p>Organizing effects</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary role of testosterone in sex drive?

    <p>Regulation of sex drive in males</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary effect of estradiol on genital development in females?

    <p>Feminization of external genitalia</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary function of the HPA axis in response to stress?

    <p>Synthesis and release of cortisol</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following is an example of non-associative learning?

    <p>Habituation</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary role of the amygdala in regulating fear?

    <p>Regulation of learned fear</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which stage of the General Adaptation Syndrome is characterized by decreased sympathetic activity and continued release of cortisol?

    <p>Resistance</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary consequence of chronic activation of the HPA axis?

    <p>Damage to hippocampal cells</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which type of memory is characterized as difficult to put into words?

    <p>Implicit memory</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary mechanism underlying habituation?

    <p>Decreased release of neurotransmitters from sensory neurons</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary difference between anxiety and panic disorder?

    <p>Type of symptoms</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary purpose of potassium channels opening during depolarization?

    <p>To restore the resting potential of the neuron</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary function of exocytosis in neurotransmission?

    <p>To release neurotransmitters into the synaptic cleft</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary difference between the inside and outside of a neuron at rest?

    <p>The inside is more negatively charged than the outside</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary function of ligand-gated ion channels?

    <p>To open in response to binding of neurotransmitters</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary purpose of retrograde transmitters in neurotransmission?

    <p>To confirm receipt of the message and stop further release of neurotransmitters</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary consequence of hyperpolarization?

    <p>The neuron becomes less likely to fire</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary function of calcium ions in exocytosis?

    <p>To cause synaptic vesicles to release from microtubules</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary difference between the intercellular fluid and extracellular fluid?

    <p>The extracellular fluid is more positively charged than the intercellular fluid</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the characteristic of human language that allows it to convey information about events and ideas across space and time?

    <p>displacement</p> Signup and view all the answers

    In which part of the brain is language switch mechanisms primarily located in bilingual individuals?

    <p>dorsolateral prefrontal cortex</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the term for the precursor of language that is thought to have evolved in humans and some animals?

    <p>vocal learning</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary consequence of stroke on language in bilingual individuals?

    <p>stronger impact on the second learned language</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the characteristic of language that allows it to create new phrases to represent new ideas?

    <p>productivity</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the term for the partial or total loss of the ability to produce and/or comprehend language?

    <p>aphasia</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary function of receptors in neural transmission?

    <p>To bind specifically to certain neurotransmitters based on shape and molecular properties</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the advantage of bilingualism in terms of cognitive control?

    <p>enhanced cognitive control</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary function of rods in the human visual system?

    <p>Seeing in low light conditions</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the characteristic of language that is handed down across generations?

    <p>cultural transmission</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the effect of ligand-gated channels on the post-synaptic cell's membrane potential?

    <p>Both depolarizing and hyperpolarizing, depending on the type of neurotransmitter and receptor</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the term for the region of visual space where light needs to come from to hit the right receptors on the retina?

    <p>Receptive field</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary function of dopamine in the brain?

    <p>Movement, reinforcement, and planning</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which color perception theory explains color aftereffects and color blindness?

    <p>Opponent-process theory</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the result of temporal summation in neural transmission?

    <p>The ability to achieve the threshold potential through multiple neural signals</p> Signup and view all the answers

    According to the trichromatic theory, how many colors are needed to perceive all existing colors?

    <p>3</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the function of vesicle material recycling at the axon terminal?

    <p>To facilitate the reuptake of vesicles for future neural transmission</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary characteristic of ionotropic receptors?

    <p>They are connected to ligand-gated channels</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the term for the process by which receptors become tired due to adaptation?

    <p>Receptor fatigue</p> Signup and view all the answers

    According to the retinex theory, what determines the color we perceive?

    <p>The brain's interpretation of retinal input</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the effect of GABA receptors on the post-synaptic cell's membrane potential?

    <p>Hyperpolarizing, allowing for entry of negative ions and exit of positive ions</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary function of serotonin in the brain?

    <p>Regulation of sleep, appetite, and mood</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the term for the combined receptive field of ganglion cells and the receptors that were hit by light and are responding to the same ganglion cell?

    <p>Ganglion cell receptive field</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary difference between the trichromatic and opponent-process theories?

    <p>The way color is determined</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary function of the secondary auditory cortex?

    <p>Higher level conceptual recognition and processing of sound</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the name of the organs responsible for detecting position and movement of the head?

    <p>Semicircular canals</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary characteristic of the mechanical senses?

    <p>Respond to mechanical distortions of a receptor</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary function of the basilar membrane?

    <p>Converting sound frequencies into tonotopy</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary difference between the primary and secondary auditory cortex?

    <p>Primary is responsible for tonotopy, secondary is responsible for higher-level processing of sound</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary function of hair cells in the auditory system?

    <p>Bending in response to sound waves</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary characteristic of the vestibular sensation?

    <p>Detects changes in head position and movement</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary function of the cochlea?

    <p>Converting sound frequencies into tonotopy</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Study Notes

    Group Dynamics

    • A group is defined as 2+ people who share a common definition of themselves and behave accordingly to this definition.
    • Cohesiveness is the property of a group that binds its people to be group members, giving the group a sense of solidarity.
    • Entiativity refers to how "group-like" the group is, which is determined by its coherence, distinctiveness, and unity.

    Types of Groups

    • Intimacy groups: family and friends
    • Task groups: work, hobby, etc.
    • Social categories: race, gender, etc.
    • Loose associations: not considered a group by some scientists, as they are a collection of unrelated individuals

    Social-Psychological Views on Groups

    • Individualistic view: group processes = interpersonal processes
    • Collectivist view: group processes = unique properties of people's feelings/thoughts/behavior as group members

    Group Structures

    • Roles: what you are, varying between different activities within the group, and can be informal/implicit, formal/explicit, task-focused, or socioemotional-focused.
    • Status: how you are evaluated, with roles differing in status, and consensual evaluation of your prestige as a role in the group or prestige of a whole group.

    Social Influence

    • Social influence is the process of influencing attitudes or behavior by real or implied presence of others.
    • Effects of presence of others: leaders and groups
    • Social pressure and norms differ between groups, with tight vs loose cultures, and influenced by ecology and history.

    Compliance and Conformity

    • Compliance: change of public behaviors, based on power, with reference groups and membership groups.
    • Conformity: deep-seated, private, and enduring change in behavior and attitudes because of group influence, with informational influence and normative influence.

    Group Belongingness and Norms

    • Overestimation of control over events, unrealistically optimistic
    • Dunning-Kruger effect: people with limited competence in a particular domain overestimate their abilities.
    • Threats to self-concept: failures, inconsistencies, and stressors
    • Self-presentation and impression management: different roles for different audiences, with strategic and expressive purposes.

    Cultural Differences in Self and Identity

    • Independent self: self-concept determined by differences from others
    • Interdependent self: self-concept determined by relationships with others
    • Bicultural identity: frame-switching through situations

    Social Norms

    • Social norms are arbitrary regularities, implicit or explicit, with functions of expectation states theory.
    • Marginality and deviance: group consists of central, prototypical members and marginal, non-prototypical members.

    Reactions to Deviance in Groups

    • Black sheep effect: deviate in-group members are disliked more than deviate outgroup members, with moderating effects of strength of deviance, direction of deviance, and status of in-group deviant.

    Group Development

    • Forming stage: orientation and familiarization
    • Storming stage: conflict, group members know each other well enough to start working through disagreements
    • Norming stage: post-conflict consensus, cohesion, common identity, and shared purpose
    • Performing stage: group works smoothly as a unit, with shared norms and goals, strong morale, and a good atmosphere
    • Adjourning stage: group dissolves because members lose interest or have completed their goals

    Group Effects on Individual Performance

    • Mere presence of others: passive and unresponsive audience, only physically present
    • Social facilitation vs. social inhibition
    • Evaluation apprehension model: presence of others anticipates evaluation and causes arousal
    • Distraction-conflict theory of social facilitation: physical presence of others is distracting

    Types of Group Tasks

    • Ringelmann effect: individual effort decreases as group size increases
    • Social loafing: reduction of own effort when working on a collective task where outputs are pooled
    • Free-riding: gaining benefits from being a member of a group while avoiding costly obligations of this membership and having others carry them

    Group Decision Making

    • Brainstorming: pros and cons
    • Groupthink: motivation to rather have an unanimous agreement rather than coming to a qualitative decision
    • Antecedents of groupthink: excessive cohesiveness, ideological homogeneity, isolation from external information and influence, and lacking impartial leadership and proper procedural norms in group

    Group Polarization

    • Groups tend to be more extreme than their individual members in their attitudes
    • Social identity theory explains group polarization as a regular conformity phenomenon, as people in discussion groups tend to converge on what "we" think and away from what "others" think

    Emotions and the Brain

    • Humans can distinguish between happiness, sadness, disgust, fear, and anger, but the brain areas associated with these emotions are inconsistent
    • The basic emotions can be identified based on facial expressions, which is a universal phenomenon across cultures
    • People from different cultures can match emotion names to facial expressions
    • However, cultural selectivity exists, where people are better at recognizing emotions of people similar to themselves
    • Emotions can be categorized as positive, negative, and by their intensity (arousal)

    Brain Differences

    • The left hemisphere of the brain is associated with behavioral activation, low-moderate arousal, and a tendency to "approach"
    • The right hemisphere is associated with behavioral inhibition, high arousal, and a tendency to "avoid"
    • The left hemisphere is linked to anger and happiness, while the right hemisphere is linked to disgust and fear

    Functions of Emotions

    • Fear alerts us to escape danger
    • Anger motivates us to attack an intruder
    • Disgust helps us avoid something potentially illness-evoking
    • Emotional expressions help us communicate our needs to others and understand our own needs and actions
    • Emotions also help us make decisions

    Moral Decisions

    • Emotions influence our moral decisions, such as those related to sex drive and the menstrual cycle

    Organizing Effects

    • Prenatal exposure to testosterone can lead to masculinization of female rats' anatomy and behavior
    • Congenital Adrenal Hyperplasia (CAH) can result in high testosterone levels, leading to masculinization of external female genitalia
    • CAH females are more likely to show male-typical behavior in childhood and later life
    • Androgen Insensitivity Syndrome can result in genetic males having female appearance and gender identity

    Hormones and Reproductive Behaviors

    Hormones

    • Androgens are hormones more abundant in males, such as testosterone
    • Estrogens are hormones more abundant in females, such as estradiol and progesterone
    • Steroid hormones can exert their effects in three ways: binding to membrane receptors, entering cells and activating proteins, and binding to chromosomes and activating or inactivating genes

    Sexual Development

    • Sex is determined by sex chromosomes, which can be XX, XY, or variations such as Turner syndrome, Klinefelter syndrome, and XYY

    Development of Genitalia

    • Males and females start with undifferentiated genitalia during fetal development
    • The introduction of the SRY gene determines the development of testes in males, while ovaries produce estradiol, leading to the development of female genitalia

    Effects of Hormones

    • Hormones can have organizing effects, producing long-lasting structural changes, such as the development of genitalia and secondary sex characteristics
    • Hormones can also have activating effects, producing temporary changes in behavior or physiology

    Biology Explanations

    • Four kinds of explanations in Biology:
    • Physiological: understanding the physiological cause
    • Functional: understanding the function and its benefits
    • Ontogenetic: understanding how behavior develops
    • Evolutionary: understanding the evolutionary origins

    Mind-Body Problem

    • Two main views:
    • Monistic view: mind and body are one entity
    • Dualistic view: mind and body are separate entities

    Animal Research

    • Importance of animal research:
    • Sharing genes and physiological mechanisms with humans
    • Used as models for healthy human brain and to develop understanding and treatment for various diseases
    • Balancing human suffering vs animal discomfort

    Neurons

    • Characteristics of neurons:
    • Come in different shapes related to their functions
    • Types of neurons:
      • Purkinje cell: important for precise timing of movements
      • Sensory neuron: eg. touch, pressure, pain receptors in skin
      • Pyramidal cell: found in cortical tissue, responsible for communication within the brain
      • Bipolar cell: important for precise coding

    Structure of Neurons

    • Components of neurons:
    • Soma (cell body): contains nucleus, ribosomes, and mitochondria
    • Axon: channel with microtubules that sends the impulse
    • Myelin sheath: insulation of axon, speeds up information transmission and reduces energy needed
    • Node of Ranvier: small unmyelinated segments of the axon
    • Dendrites and dendritic spines: receive inputs from other neurons
    • Cell membrane: insulates the cell from the environment, has selective permeability and ion channels

    Glial Cells

    • Types of glial cells:
    • Astrocytes: control blood vessel dilation and have synchronizing function
    • Oligodendrocyte: create myelin sheaths in the central nervous system
    • Schwann cells: create myelin sheaths in the peripheral nervous system
    • Microglia: part of the brain's immune system

    Blood-Brain Barrier

    • Function of blood-brain barrier:
    • Protects the brain from dangerous chemicals and viruses
    • Limits the passage of chemicals into the brain
    • Some chemicals can pass through active and passive transport

    Action Potential

    • Definition of action potential:
    • Electrical signals produced by nerve cells in the brain
    • Enable one nerve cell to activate or inhibit another nerve cell
    • Optogenetics: research method that allows for selective activation or inhibition of nerve cells

    Action Potential Mechanism

    • Steps involved in action potential mechanism:
    • Not specified in the text

    Human Olfactory System

    • Unique features of human olfactory system:
    • Olfactory stimuli reported directly to olfactory bulb (not passing through thalamus)
    • Neurogenesis continues into adult life

    Muscles

    • Categories of muscles:
    • Smooth muscles: control digestive system and other organs
    • Striated muscles: control movement of the body
    • Cardiac muscles: heart muscles with properties of skeletal and smooth muscles

    Nervous System and Movement

    • Components of nervous system and movement:
    • Neuromuscular junction: synapse between motor neuron axon and muscle fiber
    • Motor neurons release acetylcholine: excitatory neurotransmitter that causes muscle contraction

    Antagonistic Muscles

    • Function of antagonistic muscles:
    • Enable movement in different directions
    • Examples: flexor and extensor muscles

    Basal Metabolism

    • Thermogenesis: mechanisms that control body temperature
    • A!ostasis: change is anticipated, so compensatory mechanisms happen before the change occurs

    Differences between Species

    • Ectothermic animals:
    • Body temperature depends on environment temperature
    • No physiological mechanisms to regulate temperature
    • Regulate temperature behaviorally
    • Endothermic animals:
    • Generate own body heat
    • Body temperature higher than environment
    • Physiological mechanisms: sweating, shivering, restricting blood flow to skin
    • Behavioral mechanisms: various

    Temperature Regulation

    • Importance of temperature regulation:
    • Warm body is always ready for vigorous movement
    • Temperature affects oxygen release from hemoglobin to muscles
    • 37°C temperature is maintained, not higher
    • Reasons: energy cost, protein bonds, and fever response

    Organizing Effects

    • Examples of prenatal organizing effects:
    • Female rats exposed to testosterone during sensitive period become partly masculinized
    • Congenital Adrenal Hyperplasia (CAH): negative feedback mechanism fails, leading to high testosterone levels
    • Androgen Insensitivity Syndrome: genetic males insensitive to androgens have female appearance and gender identity

    Escape Behaviour

    • Startle reflex:
    • Loud noise leads to contraction of neck muscles within 0.2 seconds
    • Reflex is stronger in anxious people
    • Amygdala plays an important role in regulating fear, especially learned fear

    Stress and Health

    • Stages of stress (General Adaptation Syndrome):
    • Alarm: release of epinephrine and cortisol
    • Resistance: body adapts, decrease of sympathetic activity, but continued release of cortisol
    • Exhaustion: nervous and immune system no longer have energy for responses
    • HPA axis:
    • Hypothalamus → pituitary gland → adrenal cortex
    • Synthesis and release of cortisol by adrenal gland
    • Triggers a loop that leads to more HPA activation
    • Chronic activation of HPA axis: depression, illness, damage to hippocampal cells

    Learning and Memory

    • Different types of memory:
    • Not specified in the text
    • Non-associative learning:
    • Changes in magnitude of a reflex due to previous experiences
    • Habituation: decrease in reflex after repeated stimulation
    • Mechanism: repeated stimuli to siphon, sensory neuron releases less neurotransmitters, motor neuron releases less neurotransmitters

    Neuron Resting Potential

    • A neuron at rest has a difference in electrical potential between the inside and outside of the cell (-70mV)
    • The inner side is more negatively charged (anions) compared to the outer side (more positively charged)
    • The ion channels for sodium, potassium, and chloride are closed at rest

    Depolarization and Action Potential

    • The threshold is reached when ions are voltage-gated and open at -65mV
    • Sodium channels open, allowing an influx of positive ions, decreasing the difference in electrical potential
    • Potassium channels open, further reducing the difference
    • The action potential reaches its peak and then reverses, increasing the difference and reinstating the resting potential
    • Hyperpolarization occurs when the action potential is lower than the resting potential

    Synapses

    • The synapse is the space between the axon terminal and the postsynaptic neuron
    • Neurotransmission occurs through the release of neurotransmitters from the axon terminal into the synaptic cleft
    • The process involves synthesis, storage, exocytosis, binding, and breakdown of neurotransmitters

    Exocytosis

    • An action potential reaches the axon terminal, opening calcium ion channels
    • Calcium ions cause synaptic vesicles to release from microtubules and fuse with the axon membrane
    • Neurotransmitters are released into the synaptic cleft and bind to receptors on the postsynaptic neuron
    • The vesicle material is recycled, and the vesicles are either reuptaken or refilled

    Receptors

    • A receptor is a molecular structure attached to the cell body and dendrites that binds to specific neurotransmitters
    • Affinity is based on shape and molecular properties, allowing receptors to bind to specific neurotransmitters

    Ionotropic Receptors

    • Ligand-gated channels are receptors connected to ion channels that open when a neurotransmitter binds
    • Graded post-synaptic potentials result from the binding of neurotransmitters, leading to either excitatory or inhibitory effects
    • Depolarizing effects occur when positive ions enter the post-synaptic cell, while hyperpolarizing effects occur when negative ions enter and positive ions leave

    Electrophysiology

    • Discoveries through electrophysiology include excitatory and inhibitory post-synaptic potentials, and summation effects
    • Temporal summation occurs when the order of potentials matters, allowing for the threshold potential to be reached

    Neurotransmitters

    • Dopamine is involved in movement, reinforcement, and planning
    • Norepinephrine is involved in arousal, vigilance, and mood
    • Serotonin is involved in sleep, appetite, and mood
    • Glutamate is involved in excitation and long-term memory
    • Other neurotransmitters, such as acetylcholine and GABA, have specific functions

    Receptive Field

    • The receptive field is the region of visual space where light needs to come from to activate the right receptors on the retina
    • The combined receptive field of ganglion cells is larger than the single receptor field

    Theories of Color Perception

    • The trichromatic theory proposes that three colors (red, green, and blue) can mix to create any existing color
    • The opponent-process theory proposes that bipolar cells respond to colors along dimensions (blue-yellow, red-green)
    • The retinex theory proposes that the brain decides which color is perceived based on input from the retina and prior knowledge

    The Sensory System: The Ear

    • The ear consists of the outer, middle, and inner ear
    • The cochlea is responsible for converting sound waves into electrical signals
    • Action potentials in the auditory nerve translate to different pitches based on the frequency of sound waves

    Hair Cells

    • Hair cells are not bent when at rest, with approximately 15% of potassium channels open
    • When stimulated, hair cells bend, and potassium channels open

    Primary and Secondary Auditory Cortex

    • The primary auditory cortex reflects the tonotopic organization of the basilar membrane, with different regions responding to different frequencies
    • The secondary auditory cortex is involved in higher-level conceptual recognition and processing of sound

    Mechanical Senses

    • The mechanical senses respond to pressure, bending, and other physical distortions of a receptor
    • Examples include audition, vestibular sensation, touch, pain, and other body sensations

    Vestibular Sensation

    • The vestibular sensation detects position and movement of the head and directs compensatory movements of the eye to maintain balance

    Somatosensation

    • Somatosensation refers to the sensation of feeling one's body
    • Examples include relating to leftward dominance for speech, better divided attention, and faster reaction times

    Language

    • Language is a complex system with criteria including semanticity, cultural transmission, spontaneous usage, turn-taking, displacement, and structure-dependence
    • Human language likely arose as a modification of behavior, with vocal learning as a precursor
    • Bilingualism involves the ability to speak different languages, with research suggesting spatial separation of languages in the brain and better cognitive control

    Aphasia

    • Aphasia is a total or partial loss of the ability to produce and/or comprehend language
    • The impact of aphasia on language varies, with some research suggesting spatial separation of languages in the brain

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