Socialisation: Agents, Theories

• Socialisation is the process through which individuals learn and internalise the norms, values, and behaviours necessary for participation in society.
• It is divided into primary socialisation, which occurs during early childhood, and secondary socialisation, which continues throughout life.

Key Socialisation Agencies

• Family – The family is the primary agent of socialisation, playing a crucial role in shaping an individual's early development.
• Functionalist theorists like Parsons argue that the family is essential in transmitting core values such as discipline, obedience, and responsibility.
• Marxists, such as Althusser, suggest that the family serves as an ideological state apparatus, reinforcing capitalist ideologies.
• Education – Schools serve as secondary agents of socialisation, where children learn discipline, respect for authority, and societal roles.
• Durkheim emphasised the role of education in promoting social cohesion.
• Bowles and Gintis (Marxist perspective) argue that education reinforces class inequalities through the hidden curriculum.
• Peer Group – As individuals grow older, peers become influential in shaping attitudes and behaviors.
• Mead’s symbolic interactionism highlights how individuals develop a sense of self through interactions with peers.
• Sewell discusses the impact of peer pressure on identity formation, particularly in ethnic minority communities.
• Media – The mass media plays a significant role in reinforcing societal norms and values.
• Postman argues that media accelerates the loss of childhood innocence.
• Feminists such as McRobbie discuss the portrayal of gender roles through media, particularly in magazines and advertising.
• Religion – Religion has historically been a major agent of socialisation, providing moral guidance and social cohesion.
• Weber highlighted the influence of religious beliefs, such as Calvinism, on societal development.
• Feminists critique religion as reinforcing patriarchal structures.
• Workplace – In adulthood, the workplace becomes a crucial agent of socialisation, teaching individuals specific skills and expected workplace behaviour.
• Goffman’s concept of dramaturgy suggests that individuals modify their behaviour to fit different professional roles.
• Marxists view workplace socialisation as a means of maintaining worker compliance within a capitalist system.
• The effectiveness of these agencies varies depending on social class, culture, and historical context.
• Sociologists like Bourdieu argue that cultural capital determines how effectively individuals adapt to social norms in different environments.

Processes Used by Agencies of Socialisation

• Socialisation occurs through various mechanisms that reinforce societal norms and expectations.
• Canalisation – This concept, developed by Oakley in the study of gender socialisation, refers to the way parents direct children's interests towards gender-appropriate toys, activities, and behaviours.
• For example, boys are often encouraged to play with toy cars, while girls receive dolls, reinforcing traditional gender roles.
• Hidden Curriculum – Coined by sociologists like Bowles and Gintis, the hidden curriculum refers to the implicit lessons taught in schools beyond formal education, such as obedience, punctuality, and social hierarchy.
• Functionalists argue that it maintains social order.
• Marxists criticise it for perpetuating class inequalities.
• Media Representations – The media plays a powerful role in shaping perceptions of different social groups.
• Stuart Hall’s concept of encoding and decoding explains how audiences interpret media messages.
• Feminists critique the media’s reinforcement of gender stereotypes.
• Peer Pressure – Peer groups influence behaviours and social choices, particularly during adolescence.
• Becker’s labelling theory suggests that peer group perceptions can shape an individual's identity, leading to self-fulfilling prophecies.
• Sewell discusses the impact of peer pressure on ethnic minority youths and their identity formation.
• Religious Teachings – Religion shapes morality, beliefs, and customs.
• Durkheim saw religion as a unifying force that reinforces collective consciousness.
• Marxists argue that religion serves as an "opiate of the masses," pacifying the working class.
• Feminist theorists critique religion for reinforcing gender inequality.
• Role Modelling – Individuals learn behaviours by observing and imitating role models, as discussed in Bandura’s social learning theory.
• This is particularly evident in media, family dynamics, and workplaces.
• Workplace Training – In adulthood, workplaces reinforce socialisation through formal training and professional expectations.
• Foucault’s concept of surveillance suggests that workplace discipline is maintained through observation and regulation, ensuring employees conform to organisational norms.

Socialisation is the process of learning norms and values for societal participation, divided into primary and secondary stages. Key agents include family and education, with functionalist and Marxist perspectives offering insights into their roles in transmitting values and reinforcing ideologies.