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Questions and Answers
What does attribution theory primarily focus on in social psychology?
Which bias describes the tendency to maintain one's beliefs even when faced with contradictory evidence?
What does Kahneman's concept of cognitive heuristics pertain to in social judgments?
Which effect relates to the phenomenon where individuals attribute their behavior to situational factors while attributing others' behavior to their character?
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Which bias reflects a tendency to favor information that confirms existing beliefs and overlooking contradictory information?
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What is the primary reason people tend to conform in group settings?
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Which of the following factors does NOT influence helping behavior?
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In the context of emotional interpretation, what is excitation transfer?
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Which theory posits that emotions result from physiological reactions to stimuli?
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What is a characteristic of public conformity?
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What is the primary motivation behind the need for affiliation?
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What theory suggests that individuals are attracted to others who resemble them?
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Which attachment style is characterized by a high level of trust and emotional closeness?
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How many basic subtypes of love are proposed in Sternberg's Triangular Theory of Love?
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What term describes the phenomenon where individuals' opinions and behaviors change as a result of group dynamics?
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Which theory posits that relationships are formed and maintained based on perceived rewards and costs?
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What is a characteristic of Companionate Love as opposed to Passionate Love?
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What effect supports the idea that people are drawn to others who provide them with positive reinforcement?
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Study Notes
Emotions
- Definition: Emotions are psychological responses to certain situations.
- Two-factor theory of emotion (Schachter and Singer): Emotions involve both a physiological arousal and a cognitive interpretation of that arousal. We experience emotions when we interpret the physiological responses we experience in a particular situation.
- James-Lange theory: Emotions are caused by physiological changes in the body, such as changes in heart rate or breathing. We experience emotions when we are aware of these changes.
- Cannon-Bard theory: Emotions and physiological changes occur simultaneously. We experience an emotion at the same time our body is undergoing physiological changes.
- Schachter-Singer theory: Emotions arise from a two-step process. First, we experience physiological arousal and then we cognitively label the arousal, which gives us the subjective experience of emotion.
- Misinterpreting emotions: It is possible to misinterpret emotions. We may label our physiological arousal with the wrong emotion.
- Excitation Transfer: Arousal from one source can transfer to another source, leading to an increase in intensity of emotions.
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Labelling emotions: We can label our feelings by:
- Paying attention to bodily sensations: Paying close attention to your physical sensations will help you identify the emotion you are experiencing.
- Observing your thoughts and behaviors: Analyze your thoughts and behaviors as they may be indicative of the emotion you are feeling.
- Considering the context: The context of a situation can help you understand the emotion you are feeling.
Obstacle
- Bystander effect: The more bystanders present in a situation, the less likely any one bystander is to help someone in need.
- Reasons for the Bystander effect: Diffusion of responsibility - bystanders feel less responsible for helping when others are present.
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Steps to provide help:
- Notice the event: Pay attention to your surroundings and be aware of what is going on.
- Interpret the event as an emergency: Recognize that the situation is serious and requires help.
- Assume responsibility: Decide that YOU are the one who should take action.
- Decide how to help: Consider the situation and determine the best way to help.
- Take action: Actually help the person in need.
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Reasons people help:
- Altruism: Unselfish concern for the welfare of others; helping without expecting personal gain.
- Empathy: Understanding and sharing the feelings of others; feeling their emotional pain.
- Social responsibility: Feeling obligated to help those in need.
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Situational factors affecting helping behaviour:
- Presence of others: The more people around, the less likely any one individual is to help.
- Helping behaviour influenced by others: We are more likely to help if we see others helping, and less likely to help if we see others not helping.
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Features affecting helping behaviour:
- Personality traits: Some individuals are more likely to help than others, due to factors like empathy, sense of responsibility, etc.
- Similarity to the person in need: We are more likely to help those who are similar to us in terms of appearance, beliefs, etc.
Conformity and Obedience
- Conformity: Tendency to adjust one's perceptions, opinions, and behaviours to align with social or group norms.
- Reasons for conformity: Desire to be liked, desire to be right, fear of social rejection, etc.
- Private conformity (true acceptance/conversion): Adjusting your own beliefs and attitudes to match the group.
- Public conformity (compliance): Outwardly conforming to norms while privately disagreeing.
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Factors that influence conformity:
- Group size: Conformity increases with group size up to a point.
- Gender differences: Research findings about possible differences are inconsistent and not definitive.
- Minority influence: A minority group can influence the majority, particularly if they are consistent and confident in their views.
- Culture: Some cultures place more emphasis on conformity than others.
- Task difficulty: When a task is more difficult, conformity levels tend to increase.
- When not to conform: People are less likely to conform when they feel confident in their ability to judge the situation correctly.
The Thrill of Affiliation
- Need for affiliation: The desire to establish and maintain rewarding interpersonal relationships, the desire to be in contact with others.
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Conditions for seeking out others:
- Stressful situations: People who are anxious are more likely to seek out company.
- Negative emotions: Feeling lonely, sad, or rejected tends to lead people to seek out others.
- Positive situations: Celebration events also tend to motivate people to seek out others.
- Low self-esteem: Those with low self-esteem may seek out others to boost their confidence.
- Fear of the unknown: Uncertainty can lead to a desire for company and support.
### The Initial Attraction
- The proximity effect: The closer you are to someone in proximity, the more likely you are to become attracted to them.
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What increases liking/attraction:
- Physical attraction: Physical appearance plays a significant role in initial attraction.
- Similarity: We are drawn to people who share our values, interests, and backgrounds.
- Reciprocity: We like those who like us.
- Familiarity: The more we are exposed to someone, the more likely we are to like them.
- Positive interactions: Positive experiences with someone tend to increase our liking.
- Shared experiences: Going through an emotionally charged event together, such as a scary situation, can increase attraction.
- Competence: We are attracted to those who are capable and skilled.
- Humor: A shared sense of humor can create a sense of connection.
- Personality traits: Certain personality traits are considered more attractive.
- Physical cues: Facial attractiveness, body language, etc.
Why are we blinded by beauty?
- Halo effect: Beautiful people are often assumed to be more intelligent, competent, and kind.
How do people get together?
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Mate selection patterns evolve to ensure the survival and reproduction of offspring.
- Women: Tend to seek out partners who are financially secure and have good earning potential.
- Men: Tend to prioritize youth and physical attractiveness in a partner.
Assortative mating
- Non-random coupling based on shared characteristics. People tend to attract partners who share similar characteristics to them on traits like intelligence, education, and personality.
Differences in men and women
- Expressions of love: Women tend to express love more verbally than men.
- Jealousy: Men tend to feel more threatened by sexual infidelity, while women tend to feel more threatened by emotional infidelity.
Types of Relationships - Reinforcement or Social Exchange
- Reinforcement-effect model: We tend to like those who are associated with rewards and dislike those who are associated with punishments.
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Social exchange theory: Relationships can be analyzed in terms of costs and rewards.
- Comparison level: The minimum level of rewards that we expect in a relationship.
- Comparison level for alternatives: The minimum level of rewards that we could get from other relationships.
- Equity Theory: Relationships are most satisfying when both partners feel that they are getting a fair deal.
Types of relationships
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Exchange and communal relationships:
- Exchange: Based on a tit for tat exchange of resources. Each partner sees the other as a resource.
- Communal: More intimate relationships, characterized by mutual concern for each other.
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Secure and insecure attachment styles:
- Secure: Individuals who have a positive view of themselves and others. They are comfortable with intimacy and interdependence.
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Insecure:
- Anxious-ambivalent: Individuals who have a negative view of themselves and a positive view of others. They are anxious about abandonment and crave intimacy.
- Avoidant: Individuals who have a negative view of themselves and a negative view of others. They fear closeness and are uncomfortable with intimacy.
Close relationships
- Intimacy: A feeling of closeness and connectedness to another person.
- Passion: A feeling of intense longing and attraction to another person.
- Commitment: A decision to stay in a relationship, even when things get tough.
What is love?
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Triangular Theory of Love - Sternberg:
- Intimacy: A feeling of closeness and connectedness.
- Passion: A feeling of intense longing and attraction.
- Commitment: A decision to stay in a relationship.
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Types of Love:
- Romantic love: A combination of passion, intimacy, and commitment.
- Companionate love: A combination of intimacy and commitment.
- Fatuous love: A combination of passion and commitment.
- Empty love: Commitment only.
- Infatuation: Passion only.
- Liking: Intimacy only.
Types of love (Hatfield)
- Passionate love: A state of intense longing and desire for another person.
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Companionate love: A love characterized by intimacy, affection, and trust.
- Affection: A feeling of tenderness and warmth towards someone.
- Trust: A belief in the reliability and integrity of the other person.
Culture, Attraction and Close Relationships
- Culture plays a role in shaping our ideas of love and attraction.
Sexuality
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Sexual orientation: A person's enduring sexual, romantic, or emotional attraction to other people.
- Heterosexuality: Attraction to the opposite sex.
- Homosexuality: Attraction to the same sex.
- Bisexuality: Attraction to both sexes.
- Asexuality: A lack of sexual attraction to others.
The Marital Trajectory
- Marriage: A legal and social institution that unites two people in a committed relationship.
- Marital satisfaction: Levels of happiness and well-being within a marriage.
Communication and Conflict
- Communication styles: The way in which partners communicate with each other.
- Conflict resolution: The process of resolving differences between partners.
- Conflict management: How couples address disagreements constructively.
Breaking Up
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Factors contributing to break-ups:
- Lack of communication: Inconsistent communication styles can lead to misunderstandings and conflicts.
- Infidelity: The act of cheating on a partner.
- Lack of commitment: When one or both partners are not fully invested in the relationship.
- Financial problems: Financial stress can put strain on relationships.
- Incompatibility: Partners may have different values, goals, or interests.
Attribution theory (Heider)
- People are motivated to understand others to manage their social lives.
- We observe, analyze and explain the behavior of others.
Jones's Correspondent Inference Theory
- People try to infer the intentions and dispositions of others.
- We look at factors like the actor’s choice, social desirability of the behavior, and the expectedness of the behavior.
Kelley's Covariation Theory
- We consider multiple pieces of information to explain behavior.
- We look at consistency, distinctiveness, and consensus.
Theory of Naive Psychologist
- People act like amateur scientists in trying to understand others.
- We gather data and test hypotheses about people's behavior.
Attribution Biases
- System 1: Automatic, intuitive, and fast.
- System 2: Deliberate, analytical, and slower.
Cognitive Heuristics
- Mental shortcuts that help us make judgments quickly.
- They can lead to errors and biases.
Availability Heuristic
- We rely on the ease with which information comes to mind.
- Frequent or memorable events are judged to be more likely.
Representativeness Heuristic
- We judge the likelihood of something based on how similar it is to a prototype.
- We may ignore base-rate information.
Counterfactual Thinking
- Thinking about what might have been.
- It can influence our emotions and judgments.
The Fundamental Attribution Error
- The tendency to overestimate the role of dispositional factors and underestimate the role of situational factors.
- We focus on the person's internal traits instead of external circumstances.
Culture and Attribution
- Culture influences the types of attributions we make.
Culture and the Fundamental Attribution Error
- Individuals from collectivist cultures are more likely to consider situational factors.
Focal Objects and Backgrounds
- People in individualistic cultures focus on the individual, while people in collectivist cultures focus on the context.
Motivational Biases
- Our motivations can influence our attributions.
- We may make attributions that protect our self-esteem or justify our behavior.
Illusory Correlation
- The perception of a relationship between two variables that does not exist.
- It can arise from our tendency to notice and remember confirming evidence.
Actor-Observer Effect
- The tendency to attribute our own behavior to situational factors and others' behavior to dispositional factors.
Confirmation Biases
- The tendency to seek out information that confirms our existing beliefs and to ignore information that contradicts them.
Perseverance of Beliefs
- The tendency to hold on to beliefs even after they have been discredited.
- We may be reluctant to change our minds, even in the face of evidence.
Confirmatory Hypothesis Testing
- We search for information that supports our beliefs and avoid information that challenges them.
- This can reinforce our existing beliefs, even if they are inaccurate.
The Self-Fulfilling Prophecy
- A belief about a person or situation that leads to behavior that makes the belief come true.
- Our expectations can influence our interactions with others.
The Rejection Prophecy
- If we believe others will reject us, we may act in ways that make them more likely to do so.
- This can create a self-fulfilling prophecy.
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Description
Test your knowledge on key concepts from social psychology, including attribution theory, cognitive biases, and group behavior dynamics. This quiz covers important theories and phenomena that shape how we interpret social interactions and emotional responses. Challenge yourself with questions about conformity, helping behavior, and the role of emotions in decision-making.
