Social Psychology Quiz

Chapter 1: Introduction to Social Psychology

• Definition: Social psychology is the scientific study of how individuals think, feel, and behave in social contexts. It examines how others, social situations, and group dynamics influence actions.
• Power of the Situation: Situational factors strongly impact behavior; Milgram's obedience study and the Good Samaritan study illustrate this.
• Fundamental Attribution Error: People often attribute others' behavior to internal traits instead of situational factors.
• Gestalt Psychology: Perception of the whole is more important than individual parts; construals (interpretations) shape social behaviors.
• Channel Factors and Nudges: Small situational cues can significantly influence behavior.
• Schemas: Mental frameworks used to organize knowledge, often influenced by stereotypes. These schemas are formed through experience and socialization, and their violation can lead to adjustments.
• Evolutionary Psychology: Behavior is often explained through adaptations to ancestral challenges; natural selection promotes survival-enhancing traits. Cross-cultural similarities in language, emotional bonds, and theory of mind are explained through this lens.
• Human Brain and Social Behavior: The human brain, with its prefrontal cortex for complex social cognition, differs from other mammals.
• Naturalistic Fallacy: Avoiding the mistake of assuming what is natural is also morally correct.
• Automatic vs. Conscious Processing: Automatic processes are unconscious, fast, and effortless, while conscious processes are deliberate, slow, and effortful.
• Individualistic vs. Collectivistic Cultures: Cultural differences in self-perception impact behavior; for instance, collectivist cultures emphasize group harmony, while individualistic cultures prioritize individual achievements.
• Tight vs. Loose Societies: Tight societies have strict norms and low tolerance for deviance; loose societies are more flexible.
• Improving Critical Thinking: Recognizing biases that can distort behavior analysis is key.

Chapter 2: Research Methods in Social Psychology

• Folk Theories vs. Social Psychological Theories: Folk theories are intuitive explanations; social psychology uses scientific methods to explain behavior.
• Hindsight Bias: The tendency to think outcomes were predictable after they occur.
• Confirmation Bias: Favoring information that confirms preexisting beliefs.
• Scientific Method: Systematic observation, hypotheses formulation, testing, and conclusions are crucial.
• Observational Research: Observing and recording behavior in natural settings, such as playground interactions.
• Archival Research: Analyzing existing data, such as newspaper articles.
• Surveys: Gathering self-reported information.
• Correlational Research: Examining relationships between variables but not establishing causation.
• Experimental Research: Manipulating variables allows researchers to establish causal relationships.
• Key Concepts in Experimental Design: Measured vs. manipulated variables, control groups, and experimental conditions.
• Special Experimental Types: Natural vs. field experiments, which use naturally occurring events or real-world settings.
• Validity Types: Internal (causation), external (generalizability), and construct (accuracy).
• Confounds: Unintended factors that affect the dependent variable, threatening internal validity.
• Statistical Significance and Null Hypothesis Testing: Evaluating whether findings are likely due to chance.
• Replication Studies: Repeating studies to confirm the reliability of findings.
• Ethics in Research: Informed consent, debriefing, and IRB oversight are essential.

Chapter 3: The Social Self

• Self-Schemas: Cognitive structures representing beliefs and feelings about the self; these schemas influence information processing, behavior, and future predictions.
• Working Self-Concept: The subset of self-knowledge that's activated in a specific context, dynamically shaped by situational cues.
• Spontaneous Self-Concept: The aspects of the self that stand out in a particular situation.
• Self-Knowledge vs. Other-Knowledge: Self-knowledge is stronger about internal traits, while others' knowledge is better for external traits.
• Social Comparison Theory: Evaluating the self by comparing to others.
• Downward Comparison: Comparing to those worse off, bolstering self-esteem.
• Upward Comparison: Comparing to those better off, inspiring improvement or creating feelings of inadequacy.
• Self-Esteem: The overall evaluation of oneself; trait (stable) vs. state (situational).
• Contingencies of Self-Worth: Self-esteem dependent on successes or failures in specific domains.
• Motives Driving Self-Evaluation: Better-than-average effect, self-serving biases, and self-enhancement vs. self-verification motives.
• Self-Regulation: Strategies for controlling behavior toward goals.
• Cultural Contributions to Self and Self-Esteem: Independent vs. interdependent cultures shape self-perceptions.

Chapter 4: Judging Others

• Snap Judgments: Quick assessments of others' traits and behavior, often accurate but incomplete.
• Inferring Causes of Behavior: Attributing behavior to internal or external causes.
• Covariation Principle: Considering consensus, distinctiveness, and consistency of an action to determine causes.
• Discounting Principle: The extent to which confidence in one cause lessens if other causes exist.
• Counterfactual Thinking: Imagining "what might have been" impacts emotional responses.
• Errors and Biases in Attribution: Self-serving bias, fundamental attribution error, and the actor-observer difference.
• How Information is Presented: Framing effects (order, spin, positive/negative), schemas, and heuristics influence perceptions.
• Schemas and Processing: Schemas guide perceptions and can create illusory correlations.
• Reason and Intuition: Intuitive processing is fast, but reasoning is slower and more deliberate.

Chapter 5: Emotions

• Definition and Arising of Emotions: Brief, specific responses to events.
• Mood vs. Emotion vs. Mood Disorders: Long-lasting affective states vs. brief specific states.
• Components of Emotions: Physiological arousal, subjective experience, and behavioral expression.
• Functions of Emotions: Adaptive responses like fear triggering the fight/flight response.
• Functional Value of Specific Emotions: Fear (survival), shame (social cohesion), anger (justice).
• Theories of Emotion: Key theories include James-Lange, Cannon-Bard, and Schachter-Singer.
• Evolutionary Perspective: Emotions often have universal expressions, and similar displays exist in animals.
• Social Functional Theory: Emotions maintain group cohesion and solve social problems.
• Oxytocin: Hormone related to bonding and trust, showing effects in voles and humans.
• Emotional Mimicry: Unconscious imitation of others' emotions.
• Role of Touch: Touch promotes trust and cooperation, such as observed in sports teams.
• Cultural Variations in Emotion: Different cultures hold different values about emotions, which impact emotional regulation.
• Positive Emotions: Broaden attention and build resources.
• Affective Forecasting: Predicting future emotions, often inaccurate due to biases like immune neglect, focalism, and duration neglect.

Chapter 6: Attitudes, Behavior, and Rationalization

• Attitudes: Evaluations of objects, people, or ideas (affective, cognitive, and behavioral components).
• Measuring Attitudes: Explicit measures (surveys) and implicit measures (e.g., IAT).
• Attitude-Behavior Relationship: Attitudes don't always predict behaviors; external factors and introspection can cause discrepancies.
• Cognitive Dissonance Theory: Discomfort from conflicting beliefs or behaviors; individuals rationalize their actions to reduce this discomfort.
• Self-Perception Theory: Inferring attitudes from behaviors when internal cues are ambiguous.
• System Justification Theory: Motivations to defend and legitimize existing systems.
• Terror Management Theory (TMT): Awareness of mortality motivates symbolic immortality linked to beliefs and culture.

Chapter 7: Persuasion

• Elaboration Likelihood Model (ELM): Central (logical) and peripheral (superficial cues) routes to persuasion.
• Source Characteristics: Features of the persuasive source (attractiveness, credibility, expertise).
• Message Characteristics: Elements of the message itself (clarity, emotional appeals).
• Audience Characteristics: Audience traits (mood, age, attention) influence persuadability.
• Attentional Biases and Selective Evaluation: Focus on supporting information and resistance to persuasion.
• Ideological Commitments and Thought Polarization: Stronger beliefs raise resistance to persuasion.
• Attitude Inoculation: Exposure to weak arguments builds resistance to stronger ones.
• Agenda Control: Media influencing what issues people consider important.
• Hostile Media Phenomenon: Perception that media is biased against one's view.

Chapter 8: Social Influence

• Types of Social Influence: Conformity, compliance, and obedience.
• Key Studies: Sherif's (informational influence), Asch's (normative influence), and Milgram's (obedience) experiments.
• Factors Influencing Conformity: Group size, unanimity, status, and public response.
• Compliance Techniques: Door-in-the-face, foot-in-the-door.
• Mood and Compliance: Positive moods increase compliance.
• Milgram's Experiments: High obedience to authority, despite moral conflict.

### Chapters 9-12: Social Relationships

• (Summarized)*

• Need to Belong: Fundamental human motivation for social connection with evolutionary benefits. Social isolation leads to psychological stress; empirical evidence exists in non-human animals and human studies of ostracism.

• Communal vs. Exchange Relationships: Communal relationships are based on mutual care, while exchange relationships are based on reciprocity.

• Social Exchange Theory: Relationships based on balancing the rewards and costs.

• Equity Theory: Relationships based on perceived fairness of contributions.

• Attachment Theory: Early caregiver interactions impact attachment styles (secure, anxious, avoidant).

• Proximity and Mere Exposure: Physical closeness (functional distance) and repeated exposure increase liking.

• Similarity and Attraction: Similarity in attitudes and values promotes relationships.

• Physical Attractiveness: Universal features (e.g., symmetry) influence attraction.

• Gender Differences in Mate Preferences: Both sociocultural and evolutionary factors influence mate selection; women often seek resources, while men often seek signs of fertility.

• Sternberg's Triangular Theory of Love: Combines intimacy, passion, and commitment.

• Investment Model of Commitment: Satisfaction, alternatives, and investment influence commitment in relationships.

• Big Five Personality Traits and Relationships: Certain traits (neuroticism, extraversion) predict relationship success.

• The Four Horsemen of the Apocalypse: Conflict behaviors (criticism, contempt, defensiveness, stonewalling) negatively impact relationships.

Chapter 10: Stereotyping, Prejudice, and Discrimination

• Stereotypes, Prejudice, and Discrimination: Defined and differentiated.
• Contemporary Prejudice: Modern racism, subtle biases.
• Measuring Prejudice: Explicit and implicit measures.
• Theoretical Perspectives: Economic (realistic group conflict), motivational (social identity), cognitive (stereotyping).
• Reducing Prejudice: Individual and intergroup approaches, including the contact hypothesis.
• Diversity Ideologies: Multiculturalism vs. colorblindness.

Chapter 11: Living in a Prejudiced World

• Social Dominance Theory: Societal hierarchies, individual discrimination, and institutional discrimination.
• Social Dominance Orientation (SDO): Measures the desire to maintain hierarchies.
• Legitimizing Myths: Beliefs supporting inequality (e.g., meritocracy).
• Dehumanization: Seeing certain groups as less human.
• The Stereotype Content Model: Stereotypes analyzed based on warmth and competence.
• Effects of Prejudice on Individuals: Attributional ambiguity, stereotype threat, concealment
• Effects on Social Interactions and Society: Intergroup interactions, social safety nets, inequality perception gap.

Chapter 14: Morality and Altruism

• Social-Intuitionist Model: Moral judgments often stem from automatic emotional intuitions.
• Moral Foundations Theory: Universal moral intuitions arranged in five foundations.
• Altruism: Actions intended to benefit others; driven by social reward, personal distress, or empathy.
• Situational Determinants: Bystander effect, victim characteristics.
• Construal Processes: How situations are interpreted impacts helping behavior.
• Cultural Influences: Rural vs. Urban areas and social class affect altruistic behavior.