Social Psychology (summary)

Tinbergen's Levels of Explanation

• Tinbergen's levels of explanation analyze a trait's causes at multiple levels: ultimate (function and evolution), proximate (mechanisms and development), ontogeny (development), and phylogeny (evolutionary history)

Tajfel's Minimum Group Paradigm

• Tajfel's research studied intergroup perceptions and behavior, finding minimal group differences are enough to create bias and prejudice (people favor those in their own group).

The Matching Hypothesis

• People are more likely to form committed relationships with others of equal social desirability.

Social Dominance Theory

• Societies organize themselves with social hierarchies based on group dynamics.

Proximity Effect

• Simple exposure to a stimulus or person increases liking.

WEIRD Samples

• WEIRD (Western, Educated, Industrialized, Rich, Democratic) samples often bias studies, creating limited generalizations.

Dunbar's Hypothesis

• Dunbar suggests living socially was important in human brain evolution, emphasizing the significance of human sociality.
• Dunbar's number (150) is a proposed optimal group size based on brain size.

Sternberg's Triarchic Theory of Love

• Sternberg's theory proposes different kinds of love, combining three components (intimacy, passion, commitment) to create various types of love, ranging from liking (intimacy alone) to consummate love (intimacy, passion, and commitment).

Social Exchange Theory

• Social exchange theory explains relationships based on rewards and costs. Attractiveness is influenced by these factors.

LT-Couples Attractiveness

• Long-term couples are, ideally, equally attractive.

Equity Theory

• Partners in relationships seek balance and fairness in the exchange of resources and contributions.
• Inequity leads to distress, and partners may act to restore balance.
• Equality means giving gifts of equal value.
• Equity means contributing proportionately to the benefits received.

Human Mating Patterns

• Humans exhibit various mating patterns, including monogamy (one male, one female), polygyny (one male, several females), polyandry (one female, several males), and promiscuity (no bonded relationships).

Sex is not Dichotomous

• Sex is nuanced rather than binary (XO, XXY).
• The Bem Sex Role Inventory (BSRI) measures masculinity and femininity.

Social Role Theory

• Conformity to gender roles is based on expectations, cultural pressures, and learned behaviors from observation.
• Social roles influence gendered behavior.

Learning Theory in Gender

• Gender stereotypes develop through rewards and punishments.
• Children learn through observation and modeling.

Social Learning Theory

• Learning gender behaviors through observation and modeling.

Social Identity Theory

• People define their identity through their group memberships.

Gender Schema

• The gender schema theory proposes that individuals develop gender schemas to understand and categorize people and events. This filters how people process information.

Evolutionary Perspectives on Aggression

• Heritability plays a role in aggressive tendencies (roughly 40-50%).
• People's perceptions of ambivalent events are often shaped by others: pluralistic ignorance.
• Diffusion of responsibility occurs when individuals feel less responsible for intervening when aggression occurs in a group.
• Negative reinforcement supports aggressive behaviors if actions stop undesirable occurrences.
• Reciprocal altruism describes the practice of helping others with the expectation of reciprocation.
• Hamilton's rule suggests that helping others is advantageous, but benefits must outweigh the individual cost.

Costs and Benefits of Success (Aggression)

• Cost of injury is less than the benefit of success in many cases.

Psychoanalytic Theories of Aggression

• Freud's concept of the id, ego, and superego apply to aggression.
• Aggression can be a result of a weak ego.

Frustration-Aggression Theory

• Frustration can lead to aggression, as interference with a goal leads to negative feelings.

Cognitive Neo-Associationist Theory

• Negative events (frustration, pain) can elicit quick emotional responses (anger or fear).
• These emotional reactions can be influenced by additional cues and memories.
• Cultural factors can influence these responses and actions.