Social Injustice & Economics

• In his 1967 address to the American Psychological Association, Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr. argued that in the face of societal injustice, maladjustment is preferable to adjustment
• New York, New York was the U.S. city with the most slaves in 1660
• Just before the Civil War in the U.S. South, 347,525 people owned slaves, and fewer than 1,800 people owned more than 100 slaves
• Nearly 50 percent of Americans aged 25 to 34 have student loan debt
• Legal minimum wages for workers can be raised at the federal, state, and local level
• The Personal Responsibility and Work Opportunity Reconciliation Act (PRWORA) of 1996 ended the federal guarantee of income assistance to poor families
• Based on the hypothetical of Joe's finances, he has negative wealth
• Unlike U.S. workers, all European workers have at least 20 paid vacation days each year, with some countries mandating more
• The average cost of a college education at a U.S. public university has increased by 3,000 percent over the last fifty years
• Student debt leads to all consequences except: student debt are more likely to choose personally meaningful careers
• To be considered a "slave society," a society must have all the following characteristics except: Slave status is largely determined by race
• Native Americans inhabiting North America before European arrival often lived in towns
• Monopolies can lead to all consequences except: more opportunities to own businesses
• Police tactics are more used at right-wing protests: Nonviolence
• 59 percent of Americans live paycheck to paycheck, with no savings for emergency expenses
• Three U.S. billionaires own more wealth than half the U.S. population
• Compared to older adults, younger adults today are less likely to own a home
• The wealth of a typical White family in the United States is nearly 10 times greater than that of a typical Black family
• The disparity between White and Black wealth increased during the 21st century
• The bottom half of the US population together brought in nearly twice as much income as the richest 1% in 1978

Chapter 2 Notes

• An elected official represents an achieved or earned status
• John's belief in earning a promotion and salary raise aligns with meritocracy
• A rise in inequality in the US from 1987 to 2012 was associated with a rise in individualism
• Collectivist cultures emphasize shared goals
• Individualism is a strong predictor of negative attitudes toward programs assisting people experiencing poverty
• Beatriz, a Republican woman, is most likely to believe the American dream is personally achievable
• Black children are less likely than White children to rise in income
• Tokenism may inaccurately indicate that overcoming obstacles is relatively easy for disadvantaged individuals
• Hernstein and Murray argued in "The Bell Curve" that low-income groups are inherently less intelligent than high-income groups
• Lower-income groups are often stereotyped as criminal
• Groups denied human uniqueness are seen as animal-like
• Wealthy people are often stereotyped as hardworking but also greedy
• Fatalistic explanations for poverty focus on causes like luck and disability that are beyond individual control
• Attributing a friend's job-finding difficulties to widespread recession concerns is an example of structural attribution
• Low-income groups are more likely to endorse structural over individualistic attributions for poverty

Chapter 3 Notes

• Stamping children's hands for owing lunch money is an example of lunch shaming
• Low-income and working-class people experience stigma across their entire life spans
• Mental health issues are categorized as invisible stigma; visible stigma
• Stigmatization of low-income and working-class individuals is referred to as class-based stigma
• Stigmas are often categorized as visible or concealable; controllable or uncontrollable
• U.S. class status is often seen as a controllable attribute
• Carter avoids disclosing his need-based scholarship to avoid negative perception, known as class passing
• According to Gray et al. (2018) research, dodging was more successfully employed by White low-income, first-generation college students compared to students of color
• Code-switching refers to altering behaviors to conceal a marginalized identity.
• Unwritten norms and unspoken expectations of an unfamiliar class environment are called hidden curriculum
• Research indicates that job applicants with no recent work experience are least likely to receive employer interest
• Means-tested programs like SNAP have strict income and asset eligibility requirements
• Welfare stigma refers to stereotyping and devaluation associated with receiving public assistance
• The idea that people belong to multiple overlapping social group categories is reflected in the concept of intersectionality
• Ruby's belief that she succeeded through hard work while others on welfare are lazy is a form of distancing
• "Cognitive and behavioral distancing" represents psychological responses to stigmatized groups, like separation and devaluation, according to Lott (2002)
• Stereotype threat occurs when fear of confirming a negative stereotype impairs task performance
• Social exclusion is blocking individuals or groups from fully participating in economic, social, political, and cultural life
• Internalized stigma occurs when endorsing negative stereotypes about one's own group and perceive bias as warranted
• Stigma has damaging consequences for health, well-being, and academic achievement

Chapter 4 Notes

• Children whose families were moved out of poverty because of the casino payments showed a decrease in behavior problems after a new casino opened on a Native American reservation
• Those adults whose pay rose because of the new law reported a decrease in depressive symptoms when the United Kingdom instituted a national minimum wage in 1999
• 33 percent of U.S. Black children spend at least half their childhoods in poverty
• "Deep poverty" means having an income lower than half the federal poverty line
• Median income was most strongly related to COVID-19 death rates in a study by Leopold and colleagues in New York City
• According to textbook research, Cori, an African American under the poverty line, is most likely to have a traumatic encounter with a police officer on the streets of her neighborhood
• Almost half of public primary and secondary school funding comes from local property taxes
• Fresh fruit, vegetables, and other nutritious foods are not available at affordable prices defines a "food desert"
• The Federal Poverty Level differs for households of different sizes
• The Economic Policy Institute's Family Budget Calculator is designed to reflect a "modest yet adequate" standard of living
• "Concentrated poverty" refers to census tracts with high poverty rates
• Feldman (2020) found that Black people in poor neighborhoods were at higher risk of being killed by police than those from less impoverished communities
• The United States incarcerates people at a rate five to ten times higher than those of other rich, stable nations
• Incarcerated men and women are concentrated at the lowest ends of the national income distribution before entering prison
• Negotiating with a landlord to resolve a disputed expense is an example of palliative coping
• Mani and colleagues (2013) discovered that Indian rice farmers' cognitive performance was strikingly better after the harvest than before

Chapter 5 Notes

• Two-thirds of Americans who voted for Donald Trump in the 2016 U.S. presidential election were from the wealthier half of the population
• Bill Gates could only be considered working class if the definition relied on a person's lack of ownership of the means of production
• Doctors, lawyers, and professors are working class if the definition relies on lack of ownership of the means of production
• Americans are increasingly likely to identify as working class when given the opportunity
• Increasing numbers of U.S. working-class jobs are in settings except factories
• Black women, 6.5 percent, are nursing assistants and home aids one quarter
• "Wage theft" called the denial of wages or benefits legally due to employees
• A living wage is best defined as the minimum hourly needed to cover basic expenses
• A living wage differs from a minimum wage because it aims to cover basic living expenses, while a minimum wage is a legally mandated minimum pay rate
• Sixty-one percent of incarcerated Americans are employed in prison labor
• Prisoners always work without coercion is NOT true of prison labor
• A labor union is an organized association of workers, formed to protect their rights and interests
• A strike is the term used for the organized refusal of employees to work as a form of protest
• Paid care work refers to labor with close, personal contact motivated with concern for welfare, including caring for children, ill or elderly
• Paid care workers are the following considered: nursing home care, childcare workers, home health aides, and nursing assistants
• Sex work faces social stigma and legal criminalization is why often excluded from traditional classifications of working-class occupations
• Nevada is the only state in the U.S. where sex work is not criminalized
• An ethnographic study is a research project where researchers examine the behavior in a social situation by spending time in that situation
• Students from working-class families are more likely to follow rules laid down by teachers, according to research by Calarco, in elementary school classrooms
• According to Case and Deaton, "deaths of despair" include all but homicide
• Adults without a bachelor's degree from college are particularly common among "deaths of despair", according to Case and Deaton

Chapter 6 Notes

• Wealthy people are more dishonest than middle-class people
• Conscious attitudes are generally somewhat critical, but implicit attitudes are positive when thinking about rich people
• Driving behavior at pedestrian crosswalks by drivers in different makes and models of cars was used to conduct research on driving behavior and social class
• Narcissism has become more common in recent decades
• Self-grooming is not considered a disengagement cue
• Higher SES individuals looking at other people spent less time in in New York City compared to lower SES individuals
• Lower SES research participants demonstrated a likely behavior than higher SES participants: Without viewing a video designed to induce compassion, lower SES research participants were more likely than higher SES research participants to help their research participants
• Higher status research participants exhibited a weaker physiological response after viewing a video showing families in distress
• People with more wealth can protect themselves against hardships
• Increasing the percentage of an annual salary they believed should be spent on charitable donations was asked to high SES research participants

Chapter 7 Notes

• Air rage on airplanes is more common when economy class passengers are board from the front of the plane

• Air rage episodes committed by first-class passengers frequently expresses anger

• Economic inequality and poverty are different based on the states in the U.S.

• Denmark most often records is one of the lowest levels of economic inequality

• Subjective social status is a stronger predictor of health, compared to income

• The Robin Hood Index measures the proportion of a nation that would have to be taken

• Nation Y has higher income inequality when the Gini coefficient is 0.41 and greater than Coefficient X that is 0.28

• A Gini coefficient rising year to year mean a nation's economic inequality is growing

• Researchers believed social solidarity contributed to the low rate of heart disease of Italian Americans living in Roseto

• Dependent variable in an experiment test for stress to high school students, is cognitive performance

• Consumers after implement better nutritious sales, is a Natural experiment

• Conduct if interest in population and stress: Cross-Correlation

• A 3rd variable is population size Individuals: Searches for status

• Worry a Status Anxiety

• Inequality- It's all negative

• Lower income Great since 2014