Social Influence in Psychology

Social Influence

• Social influence is how people's behaviour, attitudes, and opinions are affected by others.
• Conformity: Changing beliefs or behaviours to fit in with a group.
  • Internalization: Deep-seated change in beliefs and actions, both publicly and privately.
  • Identification: Adopting group behaviours and beliefs temporarily to fit in.
  • Compliance: Superficial change in behaviour without changing beliefs.
• Asch (1951): Line judgment task.
  • Aim: To investigate conformity.
  • Method: Participants judged line lengths; confederates gave incorrect answers.
  • Findings: 75% conformed at least once, demonstrating strong social influence.
  • Conclusion: Conformity influenced by normative and informational social influence.
• Obedience: Following an order from an authority figure.
• Milgram (1963): Shock experiment.
  • Aim: To study obedience to authority.
  • Method: Participants (teachers) administered shocks to learners (confederates) if answers were wrong.
  • Findings: 65% administered maximum shock, highlighting the power of authority.
  • Conclusion: Obedience shaped by agency theory (responsibility shifted to authority).
• Minority Influence: Small group influencing the majority.
• Moscovici (1969): Blue-green slides study.
  • Aim: To investigate minority influence.
  • Method: Consistent minority asserted a different answer on colour perception.
  • Findings: 8.4% of participants conformed, highlighting consistency's impact.
  • Conclusion: Consistency is key for minority influence.
• Social Change: How societal beliefs and behaviours change over time.
• Snowball Effect: Gradual influence of a minority, leading to widespread change (e.g., civil rights).

Research Methods

• Research methods used to study human behaviour.
• Types of Data:
  • Qualitative Data: Non-numerical, descriptive (e.g., interviews).
  • Quantitative Data: Numerical, measurable (e.g., test scores).
  • Primary Data: Directly collected by the researcher (e.g., experiments).
  • Secondary Data: Data collected by others (e.g., government reports).
• Experimental Designs:
  • Independent Groups: Different participants in different conditions.
    • Benefits: No order effects.
    • Drawbacks: Individual differences.
  • Repeated Measures: Same participants in all conditions.
    • Benefits: Fewer participants, controlled individual differences.
    • Drawbacks: Order effects (practice, fatigue).
  • Matched Pairs: Participants matched on relevant characteristics (different conditions).
    • Benefits: Controls individual differences, avoids order effects.
    • Drawbacks: Matching can be difficult.
• Types of Experiments:
  • Laboratory: Controlled, artificial environment; high control, low ecological validity.
  • Field: Natural setting; high ecological validity, low control.
  • Natural: Independent variable naturally occurring.
  • Quasi: Groups pre-existing (e.g., gender).
• Data Collection Methods:
  • Observations: Covert (unaware participants) or overt (aware participants).
  • Self-Reports: Questionnaires (structured/unstructured) or Interviews (structured/semi-structured/unstructured).
• Ethical Considerations:
  • Informed Consent: Participants informed about the study.
  • Deception: Minimized and justified when absolutely necessary.
  • Right to Withdraw: Participants can leave at any stage.
  • Confidentiality: Protecting personal information.
  • Protection from Harm: Minimizing physical and psychological harm.
• Data Analysis:
  • Descriptive Statistics: Summarizing data (mean, median, mode, standard deviation).
  • Inferential Statistics: Making inferences about the population based on sample data.

Psychological Approaches

• Diverse perspectives on explaining human behaviour.
• Biological Approach: Focuses on biological processes.
• Strengths: Scientific methods, objective data.
• Weaknesses: Oversimplification, reductionism.
• Raine et al. (1997): Brain activity study in murderers.
  • Aim: To investigate brain differences in murderers.
  • Method: PET scans of murderers and control group.
  • Findings: Murderers showed reduced activity in prefrontal cortex.
  • Conclusion: Biological factors potentially involved in aggression.
• Cognitive Approach: Focuses on mental processes (perception, memory, thinking).
• Loftus and Palmer (1974): Memory distortion study.
  • Aim: Investigating memory distortion due to questioning.
  • Method: Participants watched car accidents and were asked different questions about speed.
  • Findings: "Smashed" wording produced higher speed estimates compared to "hit."
  • Conclusion: Memory is active and reconstructive, influenced by suggestion.
• Behaviourist Approach: Focuses on observable behaviour and environmental factors.
• Classical Conditioning (Pavlov’s Dogs): Learning through association (e.g., associating a bell with food).
• Operant Conditioning (Skinner): Learning through reinforcement/punishment (e.g., Skinner box).
• Psychodynamic Approach: Focuses on unconscious processes and early childhood experiences (Freud, Little Hans).
• Freud’s Little Hans (1909): Case study on a boy's phobia and unconscious fears (Oedipus complex).
• Humanistic Approach: Focuses on personal growth, free will, and self-actualization.
• Rogers’ Person-centered therapy: Emphasizes empathy, unconditional positive regard, and congruence.