Social Influence: Conformity

Social Influence: Conformity

• Conformity involves altering behavior or beliefs to align with the majority within a group.
• Social and dispositional factors influence conformity.

Social factors influencing conformity

• Group Size: As the group size increases, conformity to majority influence increases.
• People are more likely to conform to the views of a larger group rather than a smaller one.
• Anonymity: Conformity decreases when individuals know they will be held accountable for their decisions.
• Individuals are more likely to conform to the group's views when their decisions are anonymous.
• Task Difficulty: Conformity increases when the task is difficult or ambiguous.
• In situations with difficult tasks, people look to the group for guidance.

Dispositional factors influencing conformity

• Locus of Control: People with an external locus of control are more likely to conform.
• Those with an internal locus of control take responsibility for their actions.
• People with an external locus of control attribute events to luck or fate and shift responsibility.
• Expertise: Experts in a particular area are less likely to conform.
• Experts are more confident in their knowledge and less easily swayed by others' opinions.

Asch's Study of Conformity

• Aim: To investigate the extent to which individuals conform to a majority group.
• Method: Participants matched the length of a standard line to one of three comparison lines.
• Male American undergraduates were placed in a room with confederates.
• Confederates deliberately gave incorrect answers on some trials.
• Asch repeated the experiment 123 times with a different naive participant each time.
• The number of confederates ranged from three to eight.
• Approximately 75% of participants conformed to the incorrect majority at least once, even with obvious answers.
• Conformity increased with the size and unanimity of the majority.
• Conformity decreased with at least one ally giving the correct answer.
• Conclusion: Social influence and pressure to conform to the majority are significant.
• Conformity is affected by social factors (group size and unanimity) and dispositional factors (personality and expertise).

Obedience: Milgram's Agency Theory

• Milgram's agency theory explains how social factors affect obedience.
• In an agentic state, people act on behalf of an authority figure and avoid personal responsibility.
• People may obey orders even if uncomfortable or violating moral principles.
• Milgram's Research: Focused on obedience to authority figures, especially regarding harmful actions.
• Participants gave electric shocks to a person in another room for incorrect answers.
• Shocks increased in intensity with each incorrect answer.
• The person in the other room (actor) pretended to be in distress.
• Participants were willing to administer potentially lethal shocks if instructed by an authority figure.
• Several factors influenced obedience, including perceived legitimacy and authority, proximity, and cultural/dispositional factors.
• Participants were more likely to obey when the authority figure had a legitimate/official role.
• Obedience decreased when the authority figure was distant or the victim was visible and close.
• People from more hierarchical cultures and those with higher levels of authoritarianism were more likely to obey.
• Authority figures have a powerful influence on individual behavior, especially when personal responsibility is diminished.

Adorno's Theory of the Authoritarian Personality

• Suggests some individuals have a personality type that makes them more obedient.
• Authoritarian Personalities typically have a strict, rigid upbringing emphasizing obedience.
• Black and white worldview, intolerance of ambiguity, and desire for conformity.
• Characterized by submissiveness to authority, hostility towards perceived threats, and belief in traditional values and hierarchies.
• More likely to obey authority even when harmful, seeing them as infallible and unquestionable.
• Criticized for being overly deterministic and ignoring broader social factors.
• Significant contribution to understanding dispositional factors affecting obedience.

Pro-Social Behavior: Bystander Behavior

• Individuals are less likely to intervene in an emergency when others are present.

Factors affecting bystander intervention

• Social Factors: The presence of others can significantly affect bystander intervention.
• Bystander Effect: The more people present, the less likely any one individual is to intervene.
• Diffusion of responsibility occurs, where individuals feel less responsible when others are present.
• Cost of helping: Individuals may be less likely to intervene if it is risky or costly.
• Dispositional Factors: Similarity to the victim can increase the likelihood of intervention.
• Expertise or training in emergency situations can increase the likelihood of intervention.

Piliavin Subway Study

• Aim: To investigate factors affecting bystander intervention in a naturalistic setting, focusing on the victim's appearance.
• Method: Field experiment on the New York City subway system.
• 103 trials where an actor feigned collapse.
• Results: When the actor used a walking stick, they were helped 95% of the time within 70 seconds.
• When the actor feigned drunkenness, they were helped only 50% of the time within 70 seconds.
• Conclusion: The appearance of a victim affects bystander behavior.
• A cost-benefit model is useful for understanding factors affecting bystander intervention.
• Bystanders weigh the cost of helping (time, effort, safety) against the benefits (alleviating suffering, social approval, avoiding guilt).
• Strengths: Natural setting increases applicability to real-life situations.
• Weaknesses: Carried out only in America (cultural differences may apply), and individual characters and beliefs will also affect their response.

Crowd and Collective Behavior

• Pro-social and anti-social behaviors can occur in crowds, influenced by social and dispositional factors.
• Social Loafing: Individuals put in less effort when working in a group.
• Reduced personal responsibility can decrease pro-social behavior.
• Deindividuation: Loss of individual identity and self-awareness in a large group.
• Can lead to an increase in anti-social behavior in crowds.
• Feeling more anonymous and less accountable for actions.
• Culture: Cultural norms and values influence pro-social and anti-social behaviors.
• Personality: Some individuals are more predisposed to engage in pro-social or anti-social behaviors based on personality traits.
• Morality: Individuals with a strong sense of morality may be more likely to engage in pro-social behaviors.

Language and Thought: Piaget's Theory

• Suggests language development depends on the development of thought.
• Children progress through four stages of cognitive development, intertwined with language acquisition.
• Sensory Motor Stage: Infants use senses and motor skills to explore the world.
• Rely on non-verbal communication like crying and facial expressions.
• Pre-Operational Stage: Children use symbols (words, gestures) to represent objects and ideas.
• Engage in pretend play and learn basic grammar rules.
• Limited by concrete thinking and inability to understand abstract concepts.
• Concrete Operational Stage: Develop more advanced language skills and logical thinking.
• Understand conservation and use language to describe events coherently.
• Formal Operational Stage: Develop abstract reasoning skills.
• Language use becomes sophisticated, conveys abstract ideas and concepts.

Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis

• Suggests that the language we speak influences how we perceive and think.
• Language determines how we think and influences our decision-making and cultural norms.
• Different languages lead to different patterns of thought and different worldviews.
• Strong Version: Language completely determines our thought processes.
• Weak Version: Language merely influences our thought processes.
• Sapir and Whorf favored the weaker version.
• The Inuit language has varying numbers of different words for snow (7-27).
• The number of words for a concept can limit our ability to notice and recall it.
• Children exposed to less language from a young age are less able to develop their learning.
• Affect behavior due to an inability to express emotions.
• Variation in recall of events and recognition of colors in Native American cultures.
• Hopi language does not have specific words for colors like blue or green, using general terms like "light" or "dark."
• Berlin and Kay (1969): People across cultures categorize colors into basic groups.
• Dani language of Papua New Guinea with two colour terms (dark/cool and light/warm) makes it difficult to distinguish between shades of blue and green.

Human and Animal Communication: Functions of Animal Communication

• Animal communication is exchanging information intentionally or unintentionally
• Status, threats and mate selection are commonly communicated.
• Survival: Animals warn others of potential danger using communication.
• Reproduction: Animals attract mates and initiate courtship behaviors through communication.
• Territory: Animals mark and defend their territory.
• Food: Animals use communication to locate and share food sources.

Von Frisch's Bee Study

• Aim: To investigate the communication system of honeybees, specifically the "dance language."
• Method: Observed bee's waggle dance, which communicates the location of food sources.
• Controlled observation over 20 years with 6,000 observations.
• Food sources were placed near (10-20 meters) and far (300 meters) from the hive.
• Results: Forager bees perform a waggle dance upon returning to the hive after finding food.
• Dance involves moving in a figure-eight pattern while waggling its abdomen.
• The direction of the dance indicates the direction of the food source relative to the sun.
• The length of the waggle indicates the distance from the hive.
• Bee dance language was not just innate but could be learned through observation and experience.
• Conclusion: Bees have a sophisticated form of animal communication.
• The speed and accuracy with which bees found food suggest that the bee dance had given them valuable information
• Meticulous data collection made contributions to the world of science
• Increased awareness of the importance of animal communication.
• A limitation was that the importance of sound was overlooked.
• Esh 1967 found that bees would not investigate food sources when dances were performed in silence
• Visual form of dance is not the main form of communication used within the group.
• Gould in 1992 found that bees would not respond to the waggle dance information when the nectar was placed on a boat in the middle of a lake.

Human Communication vs. Animal Communication

• Human communication possesses properties not present in animal communication.
• Symbolic Representation: Human language is a symbolic representation of meaning.
• Productivity: Humans can create an infinite number of sentences and express novel ideas.
• Displacement: Humans can talk about things not present in the immediate environment.
• Cultural Transmission: Humans can pass down language and cultural knowledge.
• Planning and Foresight: Humans can use language to plan and discuss future events.
• Abstract Concepts: Humans can use language to discuss abstract concepts.
• Animal communication is generally limited to specific purposes.

Non-Verbal Communication

• Use of gestures, facial expressions, body language, and tone of voice to convey meaning beyond spoken/written words.
• Eye Contact: Regulates conversation, expresses emotions, signals attraction, and establishes authority.
• Prolonged eye contact can signal intimacy, while avoidance can indicate discomfort or anxiety.
• Body Language: Conveys emotions, attitudes, and intentions through body movements, gestures, and facial expressions.
• Open and closed posture, postural echo, and touch are important aspects

Explanations of Non-Verbal Behavior

• Darwin's evolutionary theory suggests non-verbal communication evolved for adaptive functions.
• Facial expressions developed to communicate emotions, essential for social interactions and survival.
• Some aspects of non-verbal behavior are innate and present from birth
• Blind individuals still make hand gestures and exhibit facial expressions.
• Deaf individuals still use vocal intonation and facial expressions when communicating.

Yuki's Study of Emoticons

• Aim: to determine whether Japanese people put more focus on the eyes when considering emotions than americans.
• Method: a group of 95 students fromr japan and 118 from america gave a rating to a variety of emoticons with different eye/mouth sadness.
• Results: Japanese participants gave higher ratings to faces with happy eyes even the mouth was sad whereas americans gave higher ratings where the mouth was happy, even if the eyes were sad.
• Conclusion: This shows that japanese and american people interpret facial expressions in emoticons differently based on their facial tendencies.
• Results shows that japanese people focus more on the eyes and american people focus more on the mouth in the emoticons.
• limitation include the fact that he used emoticons and not real images and they only looked at happy and sad emotions also the participants were voluntarily Taken part and all students so they're not really fully representative of the population

Structure and Function of the Human Nervous System

• The nervous system divides into the central nervous system (CNS) and peripheral nervous system (PNS).
• The CNS includes the brain and spinal cord, processing and transmitting information.
• The brain is the control center of the nervous system, coordinating bodily functions.
• The spinal cord relays messages to and from the brain and controls reflexes.
• The PNS consists of nerves extending from the brain and spinal cord to the rest of the body.
• The PNS divides into the somatic nervous system and the autonomic nervous system.
• The somatic nervous system controls voluntary movements and processes sensory information.
• Motor neurons transmit commands from the brain to the muscles.
• The autonomic nervous system controls involuntary functions (heart rate, blood pressure, digestion).
• Further divided into the sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous systems.
• The sympathetic nervous system prepares the body for fight or flight responses.
• The parasympathetic nervous system returns the body to a calm state.
• Together, the sympathetic nervous system (SNS) and parasympathetic nervous system (PNS) maintain homeostasis.
• The fight or flight response is a physiological response to a perceived threat, triggered by the SNS.
• Involves the release of adrenaline and stress hormones, increasing heart rate, blood pressure, and respiration.
• Decreases digestion and immune function.

James-Lange Theory of Emotion

• Proposes that emotions result from physiological changes in the body.
• An emotion-provoking stimulus elicits a physiological response.
• The emotional experience follows from the awareness of these bodily changes.
• Example: Encountering a bear leads to increased heart rate and sweating, then to experiencing fear.
• Different physiological responses result in different emotional experiences.

Neuron Structure and Function

• Sensory neurons, relay neurons, and motor neurons make up the nervous system.
• Sensory neurons carry information from sensory organs to the brain and spinal cord.
• Relay neurons (interneurons) connect sensory neurons to motor neurons or other relay neurons.
• Motor neurons transmit information from the brain and spinal cord to muscles and glands.
• Synaptic transmission is the process by which neurons communicate.
• When an action potential reaches the end of a neuron, it triggers the release of neurotransmitters into the synaptic gap.
• Neurotransmitters diffuse across the synaptic gap and bind to receptor sites on the postsynaptic neuron.
• Binding can either excite or inhibit the postsynaptic neuron, depending on the neurotransmitter and receptor involved.
• Excitation: The neurotransmitter binding to the receptor site of the postsynaptic neuron causes it to depreolarize.
• Inhibition: neurotransmitter binding to the receptor site of the postsynaptic neuron causes it to hyperpolorize.
• After neurotransmitters perform their function, they are broken down by enzymes or taken back up into the presynaptic neuron (re-uptake).
• These processes facilitate communication between neurons, allowing for the transmission of information throughout the nervous system.

Hebb's Theory of Learning

• Based on the idea that when two neurons are activated at the same time, the connection between them is strengthened (Hebbian learning).
• Learning and memory involve changes in the strength of synaptic connections between neurons.
• When two neurons are activated at the same time, the synaptic connection between them is strengthened over time.
• Hebb also proposed that the growth of new connections between neurons is facilitated by the release of neurotrophic factors, which promote the growth and survival of neurons.
• Learning and memory are based on the strengthening and growth of synaptic connections between neurons, facilitated by the release of neurotrophic factors.

Structure and Function of the Brain

• The brain is divided into structures each with specific functions
• Frontal: located behind forehead and is responsible for executive functions such as decision making
• Temporal: located on sides of brain near ears it is responsible for processing auditory information
• Occipital: located at back of brain and it is responsible for processing visual information
• Parietal: located at top and back of brain and it is responsible for processing sensory information from body such as touch
• Cerebellum: located at base of brain. it is responsible for motor coordination, balance and posture

Localization of Function in the Brain

• Different regions of the brain are responsible for different functions
• Example: motor areas within primary motor cortex, visual areas within occipital lobe
• Language areas in brocas and wernickes areas. brokers is for speech production while wernickes is for comprehension.
• These regions often work together and are not independent of each other.

Wilder Penfield's Research

• Wilder Penfield was a Canadian neurosurgeon who researched the brain extensively in the 1930s and 40s.
• He mapped the interpretive cortex, brain regions responsible for interpreting sensory information and producing language.
• Penfield used cortical stimulation by applying a small electric current to specific brain regions of awake patients.
• This technique aimed to observe the physiological changes induced by stimulating different brain areas.
• Patients with epilepsy underwent the procedure while conscious on an operating table under local anesthetic.
• Stimulation of the visual cortex resulted in seeing colors, shadows, and crude outlines of objects.
• Stimulation of the somatosensory area led to sensations like tingling or a false sense of movement.
• Temporal lobe stimulation in either hemisphere produced two distinct responses: reliving past experiences and interpreting experiences.
• Reliving experiences involved patients feeling as if they were living through past events again, while remaining aware of their current situation.
• Interpretation of experiences manifested as feelings, such as a sense of fear or a feeling of something moving closer or further away, essentially causing hallucinations.
• Penfield's localization of function in the brain research supported the idea, suggesting different brain regions handle different cognitive processes.
• The left hemisphere was found to be dominant for language production and comprehension in most individuals.
• The right hemisphere was more involved in processing visual spatial information.
• Specific brain areas, such as Broca's area and Wernicke's area, were associated with language processing.
• Due to the fact that the subjects were patients with epilepsy who were undergoing brain surgery, generalizations may not be appropriate.

Introduction to Neuropsychology and Cognitive Neuroscience

• Cognitive Neuroscience combines psychology, neuroscience, and computer science to understand the relationship between brain structure/function, behavior, and cognition.
• It aims to identify the neural mechanisms underlying cognitive processes, including attention, perception, memory, decision-making, and language.
• Techniques used in cognitive neuroscience include functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI), electroencephalography (EEG), positron emission tomography (PET), and transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS).
• These techniques allow researchers to examine brain activity and connectivity during cognitive tasks and compare them to baseline conditions.
• A primary goal of cognitive neuroscience is to identify the neural basis of cognitive deficits/disorders like autism, dyslexia, schizophrenia, and Alzheimer's, in order to develop targeted interventions and therapies.

Brain Scanning Techniques

• Brain scanning techniques provide a non-invasive method to study brain structure and functioning.
• Computed Tomography (CT) scans use X-ray imaging to create detailed structural images of the brain.
• CT scans are used to detect abnormalities like tumors or bleeding by taking multiple X-ray pictures from various angles.
• Positron Emission Tomography (PET) scans show brain activity by measuring blood flow and glucose metabolism changes.
• A radioactive substance injected into the bloodstream is detected by the scanner, with more active brain areas appearing brighter due to higher glucose usage.
• Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging (fMRI) uses magnetic fields and radio waves to detect changes in blood flow and oxygen levels in the brain.
• fMRI provides a detailed image of the brain's functional activity and identifies activated brain areas during specific tasks or cognitive processes.

Case Study: Tulving's Gold Memory Study

• Tulving's gold memory study investigated different types of long-term memory, particularly episodic and semantic memories.
• Six volunteers, including Tulving and his wife, participated in the study.
• Participants were injected with a small amount of radioactive gold, which, once absorbed in the brain, was observed on a PET scan utilizing gamma rays.
• Participants completed eight trials, four episodic and four semantic, in a random order, using a repeated measures design.
• Episodic tasks involved thinking about personal experiences, such as childhood holidays.
• Semantic tasks involved recalling historical facts from memory.
• Participants began thinking about the topic when given a signal, and blood flow in the brain was monitored on the scan.
• Semantic memories activated blood flow toward the back of the brain in three of the six participants.
• Episodic memories activated blood flow toward the front of the brain, specifically in the frontal and temporal lobes.
• There were only three participants who showed the effects.
• The experimenter cannot control what they are actually thinking about during the process.
• Episodic and semantic memories are separate forms of long-term memory located in different brain regions.

Impact of Neurological Damage

• Neurological damage, such as stroke or injury, can affect motor abilities and behavior by damaging or destroying brain areas controlling movement and conduct.
• Damage to the motor cortex can result in difficulties with movement and coordination.
• Damage to the prefrontal cortex can affect decision-making and impulse control.
• The severity and location of the damage determine the extent of its impact on motor abilities and behavior.
• Rehabilitation and therapy can help individuals regain some abilities, but the damage may be permanent in some cases.

Introduction to Mental Health

• Mental health is a state of emotional, psychological, and social well-being that allows individuals to function effectively, cope with stress, and contribute to society.
• Positive mental health is characterized by positive emotions, effective coping strategies, resilience, positive social relationships, and the ability to contribute to society.
• Positive emotions and well-being involve experiencing happiness, joy, and contentment, and having a sense of purpose.
• Effective coping strategies include problem-solving, adapting to change, and managing emotions in healthy ways.
• Resilience is the capacity to recover quickly from difficulties; toughness.
• Positive social relationships encompass having supportive friendships, healthy romantic relationships, and positive family relationships.
• The ability to contribute to society means making positive contributions through work, volunteering, or other engagement.
• Mental health is not just the absence of mental illness but a positive state of well-being for thriving and living fulfilling lives.

Cultural Variations in Beliefs About Mental Health Problems

• Cultural variations affect how mental health and illness are understood and interpreted across different cultures.
• Cultural beliefs, values, and norms shape how people view and respond to mental health problems.
• Some cultures may view mental health problems as weakness.
• Others see them as medical conditions requiring treatment.
• Mental illness may be stigmatized in some cultures while openly discussed in others.
• Cultural variations also influence the types of treatment sought and how mental health problems are managed.
• Some cultures may prefer traditional healing methods over Western medicine.
• It's important to respect cultural differences in beliefs about mental health to provide appropriate and effective support.

Challenges to Mental Health in Modern Living

• Modern living presents challenges to mental health, including isolation due to remote work and communication.
• Reduced face-to-face social interaction can lead to loneliness and disconnection, contributing to depression and anxiety.
• The constant flow of information and demands from technology can be overwhelming, causing stress and burnout.
• Economic uncertainty and job insecurity can cause financial stress and exacerbate mental health problems.
• Social stigma surrounding mental health issues can prevent individuals from seeking help.

Changes in Attitudes Towards Mental Health

• In the past, mental health problems were stigmatized and associated with negative stereotypes.
• This led to ostracization and discrimination, preventing people from seeking help.
• Increased recognition of mental health problems and lessened stigma has occurred in recent years.
• Public education campaigns, celebrity involvement in advocacy, and safe spaces for discussion have brought about that change.
• Mental health professionals and organizations promote services, advocate for policies, and support individuals.
• People with mental health problems are more likely to seek help due to increased public understanding and acceptance.

Effects of Significant Mental Health Problems

• Mental health problems can have a range of effects on an individual's overall well-being.
• One may experience damage to family and friend relationships and difficulty forming new ones due to mental health problems.
• Difficulties coping with day-to-day life may include struggling with responsibilities and self-care activities.
• Negative impacts on physical well-being may involve changes in appetite, sleep patterns, and an increased risk of chronic conditions.
• At the individual level, mental health problems can lead to difficulties in relationships, employment, and daily functioning.
• This may result in the need for more social support, care, and hospitalization.
• Mental health problems may increase the risk of criminal activity or substance abuse.
• At the societal level, mental health problems can have significant economic implications, including lost productivity and increased healthcare costs.
• Improved access to treatment and recognition of the importance of mental health can help mitigate these effects.

Characteristics of Clinical Depression, Unipolar Depression, Bipolar Depression and Sadness

• Unipolar depression (major depressive disorder) is a mood disorder marked by sadness, hopelessness, and a lack of interest in daily activities.
• It can be accompanied by changes in appetite, sleep patterns, energy levels, and concentration.
• Unipolar depression is often caused by a combination of genetic, biological, environmental, and psychological factors.
• Bipolar depression is a mood disorder involving alternating periods of depression and mania (elevated mood and hyperactivity).
• Bipolar depression can be challenging to diagnose as the symptoms can vary greatly between individuals.
• Sadness is a natural human emotion typically experienced in response to a specific event, such as loss or disappointment.
• Unlike depression, sadness is temporary and not necessarily indicative of a mental health disorder.
• Sadness may be accompanied by physical symptoms such as crying, lethargy, or decreased appetite, which typically resolve over time.

International Classification of Diseases (ICD) and Diagnosis of Depression

• The ICD is a diagnostic tool used by healthcare professionals worldwide to classify and diagnose medical conditions, including mental health disorders.
• Diagnosing unipolar depression using the ICD involves assessing symptoms such as persistent low mood, feelings of worthlessness, loss of interest, decreased energy, changes in appetite and sleep, difficulty concentrating, and thoughts of self-harm or suicide.
• The presence of certain symptoms cannot solely determine diagnosis.
• Severity and duration of symptoms are also considered.
• Mild depressive symptoms may include feeling sad, lacking energy, or having difficulty sleeping.
• Severe symptoms may include profound sadness, hopelessness, and suicidal thoughts.
• Mental health professionals consider a person's medical and psychiatric history before making a diagnosis.

Biological Explanation of Depression

• The biological explanation suggests that depression is caused by an imbalance of certain chemicals in the brain.
• These chemicals in the brain are neurotransmitters such as serotonin.
• Serotonin, norepinephrine, and dopamine are involved in regulating moods, motivation, and other important functions.
• Low levels of Serotonin have been linked to depression, it is a neurotransmitter and it regulates mood.
• In people with depression, there is a deficiency of serotonin in certain parts of the brain.
• Research has found that genetic and hormones can contribute to depression.
• Studies have shown that depression can run in families suggesting a genetic component.
• Hormonal changes, such as those that occur during menopause or after childbirth, can trigger depression in some people.

Psychological Explanation of Depression

• The psychological explanation of depression emphasizes the role of nurture or environmental factors in the development of depression.
• Negative schemas or patterns of thinking can influence an individual's perception of themselves.
• This leads to negative attributions and beliefs about themselves and their experiences.
• These negative patterns of thinking can contribute to the development and maintenance of depression.
• Individuals who have experienced adverse life events, such as trauma or loss, may be more susceptible to developing negative schemas and attributions.
• Psychological treatments, such as CBT, aim to identify and adapt coping strategies.

Treatments for Depression: Antidepressants and Cognitive Behavior Therapy (CBT)

• Antidepressant medications are used to treat depression by altering neurotransmitter levels in the brain, such as serotonin, norepinephrine, dopamine, and SSRIs.
• Antidepressants are often prescribed for moderate to severe depression, anxiety disorders, obsessive compulsive disorder (OCD), and PTSD.
• Types of antidepressants include selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs), serotonin norepinephrine reuptake inhibitors (SNRIs), tricyclic antidepressants (TCAs), and monoamine oxidase inhibitors (MAOIs).
• SSRIs and SNRIs are more commonly prescribed due to their fewer side effects compared to TCAs and MAOIs.
• Antidepressants are not a cure for depression, but they help alleviate symptoms such as sadness and hopelessness.
• Cognitive behavior therapy (CBT) is a talking therapy that focuses on identifying and changing negative thought patterns and behaviors.
• CBT is based on the idea that how we think about situations affects how we feel and behave.
• In CBT, a therapist helps the client develop coping strategies to deal with difficult situations.
• It's been found to be an effective treatment for a range of mental health problems.

Reductionist vs. Holistic Perspectives on Depression

• From a reductionist perspective, antidepressant medications and CBT target specific biological factors thought to cause depression.
• These interventions can be effective at reducing symptoms and helping individuals recover from depression.
• From a holistic perspective, depression is a multifaceted condition influenced by factors including genetics and the environment.
• Treatment should address not only the symptoms of depression but also the underlying causes of the condition.

Effectiveness of CBT Study (AIM Wiles)

• The study investigated if treatment-resistant patients improved when given a combination of antidepressants plus CBT.
• 469 participants across Bristol, Exeter, and Glasgow from 73 GP practices were in the study.
• All participants had been taking antidepressants for over six weeks with persistent signs of clinical depression.
• Patients were randomly assigned to usual care or usual care plus CBT.
• Improvement was measured using the Beck Depression Inventory (BDI), assessing depression symptoms.
• After six months, 90% of participants (422) remained in the study.
• 21.6% in the usual care group had a 50% or more reduction in symptoms.
• 46.1% in the usual care plus CBT group had a 50% or more reduction in symptoms.
• CBT was significantly more effective than usual care or placebo in reducing depression symptoms.
• CBT wasn't significantly more effective than other psychological treatments for depression.
• The benefits of CBT treatment can be maintained for over 12 months.
• The study was well-designed with carefully controlled extraneous variables, increasing its reliability.
• The use of self-report methods to determine depression levels is a possible weakness.
• Self-report methods may lack validity as mood can vary at the time of assessment.
• The research highlights CBT as an effective therapy for treating people with depression characteristics , presenting it as a practical strength.

Addiction Characteristics and Definitions

• Addiction and dependence are often used interchangeably to describe compulsive drug seeking and use despite harmful consequences.
• Addiction is considered a chronic brain disease that may develop after repeated exposure to substances.
• Dependence is a state of physiological adaptation to chronic drug use, leading to withdrawal symptoms when use stops.
• Substance misuse/abuse refers to harmful use of substances, ranging from occasional to compulsive, not always involving physical dependence.
• Substance misuse includes using prescription drugs in a non-prescribed manner or self-medicating for mental health conditions.
• The International Classification of Diseases (ICD) classifies addiction/dependence syndrome as a mental and behavioral disorder.
• ICD diagnostic criteria for addiction:
  • Strong desire or compulsion to use a substance.
  • Difficulty controlling substance use.
  • Continued use despite harmful consequences.
  • Prioritizing substance use over other activities/obligations.
  • Tolerance to the substance's effects.
  • Withdrawal symptoms when substance use stops.
• It's important to note that not everyone who uses substances will develop an addiction.
• Addiction development may be influenced by environmental, social, and biological factors, including genetics
• The ICD helps healthcare professionals accurately diagnose addiction for appropriate treatment and support.

Kaij's Twin Study of Alcohol Abuse

• The study investigated whether alcoholism could be explained by hereditary factors.
• The study involved male twins from Sweden identified using Temperance Board Registration data.
• The Temperance Board registered individuals with alcohol abuse problems.
• Kaij interviewed twins registered with the Temperance Board and close relatives.
• Information was collected about drinking habits and whether the twins were identical or non-identical.
• The study included 48 identical and 126 non-identical twins (348 twin participants total).
• In some cases, both twins were registered with the Temperance Board.
• Identical twins were more likely to both be registered with the Temperance Board than non-identical twins.
• 61% of monozygotic (MZ) twins were both alcoholic, compared to 39% of dizygotic (DZ) twins.
• The research suggests that alcoholism is related to hereditary factors.
• Alcoholism isn't 100% due to heredity, as only 61% of identical twins were both alcoholic.
• Data supports a vulnerability model because the genetic component wasn't 100% or 0%.
• Kaij only tracked individuals who publicly displayed alcohol abuse (registered with the Temperance Board).
• Registration with the Temperance Board occurred if arrested for public drunkenness, driving under the influence, or committing an alcohol-related crime.
• Kendler (1997) supported Kaij: if one co-twin was alcoholic, their twin was more likely to be alcoholic (48% to 33%).

Peer Influence and Addiction

• Peer influence explains the role of the social environment in developing addictive behavior.
• Peer influence refers to social pressure from friends and acquaintances on behavior, attitudes, and beliefs.
• Peer influence can lead to increased substance use and abuse due to pressure to conform.
• Peer influence is a significant factor in the development of addiction.
• One study found peer influence was a primary reason for drug use among young adults.
• Another study found that individuals with friends who use drugs were more likely to develop an addiction.
• Environmental factors play a significant role in shaping behavior and attitudes towards substance use.

Aversion Therapy and Self-Management Programs for Addiction

• Aversion therapy is a behavioral approach creating a negative association between the addictive substance or behavior and an unpleasant stimulus.
• The goal is to reduce the appeal of the addictive substance by associating it with discomfort or negative consequences.
• During aversion therapy, the person is exposed to the addictive substance while also exposed to an aversive stimulus.
• For example, a person with alcohol addiction may be given a medication that causes nausea when they consume alcohol.
• Aversion therapy can be effective, but it's not a standalone treatment and is often used with other therapies.
• Aversion therapy should be conducted under the supervision of a trained therapist due to potentially harmful side effects if administered improperly.
• Self-management programs involve individuals taking an active role in managing their addiction through self-help and support.
• Two common types of self-management programs are self-help groups and 12-step recovery programs.
• Self-help groups are peer-led groups where individuals with similar issues provide support and share experiences.
• Self-help groups are often based on anonymity, mutual support, and self-help principles.
• Examples of self-help groups include Alcoholics Anonymous and Narcotics Anonymous.
• 12-step recovery programs are also based on self-help and mutual support but are led by trained facilitators.
• 12-step programs emphasize spiritual and moral principles for achieving abstinence and recovery.
• Examples of 12-step programs include Alcoholics Anonymous and Cocaine Anonymous.
• These programs provide a supportive community, opportunities for personal growth, and a sense of empowerment.

Reductionist vs. Holistic Perspectives on Addiction Treatment

• Aversion therapy focuses on changing specific behaviors (e.g., reducing the desire to use a substance) by creating an unpleasant association.
• This approach assumes addiction is primarily a behavioral issue that can be changed through targeted interventions.
• Self-management programs take a more holistic approach by addressing multiple factors contributing to addiction (group therapy, counseling, peer support).
• Self-management helps individuals build skills and resilience to manage their addiction long-term.
• The approach recognizes addiction as a complex issue that cannot be reduced to a single behavior/factor.
• Aversion therapy may be more effective for individuals with strong physical dependence on a substance.
• Self-management programs may be more effective for those whose addiction is driven primarily by psychological factors.