Social Identity Theory & Group Dynamics

Social Identity Theory (Tajfel & Turner, 1979)

• Individuals form part of their self-concept through membership in social groups
• This leads to in-group favoritism and out-group discrimination

Tajfel et al. (1971) - Minimal Group Paradigm

• Aims to see if arbitrary group assignments can cause in-group favoritism
• Participants consistently favored their own group, even without personal gain
• People categorize themselves into groups and show in-group bias, even in trivial situations
• It explains group behaviors, like nationalism, discrimination, and conformity
• It is used to understand social conflict and prejudice

Cialdini et al. (1976) - Basking in Reflected Glory (BIRG)

• Aims to explore how group success affects individual self-esteem
• Students were more likely to wear school-affiliated clothing after a victory
• People associate with successful groups to feel better about themselves

Acculturation (Berry, 2005)

• Process where cultural and psychological changes occur when people from different cultures interact
• People adapt through integrating, assimilating, separating, or marginalizing

Berry (2005) - Acculturation Model proposes four strategies

• Assimilation is adopting the new culture and abandoning the original
• Integration is maintaining the original culture while embracing the new one
• Separation is rejecting the new culture while maintaining the original one
• Marginalization is rejecting both cultures
• It helps explain the experiences of immigrants and expatriates
• It is used in policymaking for integration programs

Lueck & Wilson (2010) - Acculturative Stress in Asian Immigrants

• Integration often leads to better mental health
• Marginalization can cause psychological stress
• Aims to investigate factors affecting acculturative stress among Asian immigrants in the U.S.
• Bilingualism and strong family ties reduce acculturative stress
• Discrimination and language difficulties increases this stress
• Social support and cultural maintenance are key to reducing stress when acculturating

Hofstede’s (1980) Cultural Dimensions Theory

• This theory describes how cultures differ in values and behaviors, which affects communication, work ethics, and social norms
• The IBM Study on Cultural Dimensions (1980) aimed to identify key cultural differences across nations
• The study was a large-scale survey on work-related values among IBM employees in over 50 countries
• Cultural dimensions influence workplace behavior, leadership, and social interactions
• It helps understand cross-cultural interactions and workplace diversity
• It is used in international business and communication

Findings: Identified six dimensions

• Individualism vs. Collectivism: Prioritizing personal goals (e.g., U.S.) or group harmony (e.g., China).
• Power Distance: The extent to which hierarchical structures are accepted.
• Masculinity vs. Femininity: Valuing competition and achievement (e.g., Japan) or cooperation and quality of life (e.g., Sweden).

Kulkofsky et al. (2011) - Culture and Flashbulb Memories

• Study to check how individualism and collectivism affect memory of important events
• Collectivist cultures (e.g., China) focused more on social consequences
• Individualist cultures (e.g., U.S.) focused on personal emotions
• Cultural values influence memory processing

Research Methods and Diagnosis

• Focus is on understanding how mental disorders are scientifically diagnosed and studied
• Clinical interviews, experiments, case studies, and correlational studies form part of common research methods

Rosenhan (1973) – Being Sane in Insane Places

• Study aims to test the reliability of psychiatric diagnoses
• Eight healthy individuals feigned auditory hallucinations to get admitted to psychiatric hospitals, and acted normally once admitted
• All were diagnosed with schizophrenia and stayed hospitalized for about 19 days, and staff failed to notice their normal behavior
• Psychiatric diagnoses can be unreliable and influenced by situational factors
• Highlights biases in psychiatric diagnosis (like confirmation bias)
• Shows the need for standardized diagnostic tools such as the DSM and ICD

Beck et al. (1962) – Inter-Rater Reliability of Diagnosis

• The aim was to assess how consistent psychiatric diagnoses are
• Two psychiatrists independently diagnosed 153 patients
• There was only 54% agreement rate, showing inconsistencies in diagnostic criteria
• Diagnosis can be subjective and unreliable

Explanations for Disorders

• Mental disorders can be explained through biological, cognitive, and sociocultural perspectives

Caspi et al. (2003) – 5-HTT Gene and Depression

• Study aims to investigate the role genetics has in depression
• Participants with different versions of the 5-HTT serotonin transporter gene were studied
• Those with the short allele were more likely to develop depression after stressful events
• Genetic predisposition interacts with environmental stressors to influence mental health
• Understanding different explanations helps in developing holistic treatments (e.g., combining medication, cognitive therapy, and social support)

Beck’s (1976) Cognitive Theory of Depression

• Depression is caused by negative thought patterns
• Views of self, world, and future (cognitive triad) are negative
• Cognitive distortions (e.g., catastrophizing, overgeneralization)
• Alloy et al. (1999) found that people with negative patterns of thinking were more likely to develop depression over time

Kleinman (1982) – Culture and Depression in China

• The aim was to explore how depression shows itself across different cultures
• Chinese patients diagnosed with neurasthenia (physical symptoms, but no clear medical cause) were interviewed
• Many had depression symptoms consistent with Western definitions, but expressed them as physical complaints such as headaches, fatigue
• Mental health symptoms can vary across cultures, affecting diagnosis and treatment
• Emphasizes the need for culturally sensitive therapy
• Encourages the use of indigenous healing methods alongside Western treatments

Marsella et al. (1985) – Cultural Differences in Depression

• In individualistic cultures e.g the U.S., depression is often shown by feelings of sadness and worthlessness
• In collectivist cultures such as in China, it may be expressed through physical symptoms or social withdrawal
• Effective treatment should consider cultural variations in symptom expression

Li-Repac (1980) – Cultural Bias in Therapy

• Aims to investigate how cultural bias affects therapist evaluations
• European-American and Chinese-American therapists assessed both White and Chinese-American patients
• European-American therapists viewed Chinese patients as more depressed and socially incompetent
• Chinese-American therapists rated them as more adaptable
• Therapists’ cultural background influences their diagnosis and treatment recommendations

Role of Peers and Play

• Peers and play are crucial for cognitive, social, and emotional development in childhood
• It helps children develop problem-solving skills, understand social norms, and learn emotional regulation

Vygotsky (1978) - Sociocultural Theory

• Play supports cognitive development through the “Zone of Proximal Development,” where children learn best with the help of more knowledgeable peers

Pellegrini & Smith (1998) - Play and Social Competence

• Rough-and-tumble play helps children learn social rules and conflict resolution

Brown (2009) - Importance of Play

• Lack of play in childhood is linked to social and emotional difficulties later in life
• Encourages structured and unstructured play in early education
• Supports interventions for social difficulties such as autism therapy using peer interaction

Factors Influencing Gender Identity

• Gender identity, a person’s sense of their gender, is shaped by biological, cognitive, and sociocultural factors

Money & Ehrhardt (1972) - Biosocial Theory

• Gender identity is influenced by both biological sex and socialization

Bandura (1977) - Social Learning Theory

• Children learn gender roles by observing and imitating models, which is reinforced by rewards/punishments (e.g., boys praised for toughness)

Martin & Halverson (1981) - Gender Schema Theory

• Children develop gender schemas early, influencing how they process gender-related information
• It helps explain the formation of gender roles in different cultures
• It is used in policies supporting gender inclusivity
• It helps understand the impact of gender stereotypes on self-perception

Factors Influencing Brain Development

• Brain development is shaped by genetic factors and environmental influences, such as nutrition, stimulation, and social interactions

Rosenzweig & Bennett (1972) - Enriched vs. Impoverished Environments

• Rats raised in enriched environments had thicker cortices and more synaptic connections than those in deprived environments, showing stimulation
• It supports early childhood education programs

Chugani (1999) - Brain Development in Early Childhood

• PET scans showed that early childhood is a critical period for brain growth, with high activity in areas linked to learning and emotion

Kolb & Gibb (2011) - Experience and Brain Plasticity

• Early experiences, including stress and toxins, can alter neural development
• It promotes proper nutrition and stimulation for infants
• Aids in understanding neuroplasticity and rehabilitation after brain injury