Structure and Function Overview
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Questions and Answers

What is the primary role of melanin in the skin?

  • To regulate temperature
  • To enhance skin hydration
  • To protect against UV radiation (correct)
  • To promote skin cell regeneration

    • Which structure is primarily responsible for the process of blood filtration in the kidneys?

  • Collecting duct
  • Renal pelvis
  • Glomerulus (correct)
  • Ureters

    • Which type of digestion involves the breakdown of food into smaller pieces without chemical change?

  • Absorption
  • Mechanical digestion (correct)
  • Chemical digestion
  • Excretion

    • What is the main function of the thyroid gland?

    <p>Regulation of metabolism (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which component of the nervous system is responsible for voluntary muscle movements?

    <p>Somatic nervous system (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What triggers the micturition reflex?

    <p>Stretching of the bladder wall (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which vitamin is classified as fat-soluble?

    <p>Vitamin D (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which type of immunity is obtained through vaccination?

    <p>Active immunity (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary function of Sertoli cells?

    <p>To secrete signaling molecules that promote sperm production (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What process begins with spermatogonia in the testis?

    <p>Spermatogenesis (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What characterizes mature gametes produced during spermatogenesis?

    <p>Haploid with 23 chromosomes (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    How long does one complete cycle of spermatogenesis take?

    <p>64 days (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is spermiogenesis?

    <p>Transformation of spermatids into mature sperm (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What occurs during meiosis I in spermatogenesis?

    <p>Primary spermatocytes become secondary spermatocytes (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    At what age does sperm production begin to decline?

    <p>35 years (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the role of the blood-testis barrier created by Sertoli cells?

    <p>To prevent bloodborne substances from reaching germ cells (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which cell type is considered a stem cell in the testis?

    <p>Spermatogonia (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    How many cells are produced as a result of meiosis II during spermatogenesis?

    <p>Four haploid cells (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What primarily defines the difference between sex and gender?

    <p>Sex is biological; gender is a social construct (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What surgical procedures are associated with sexual anatomy?

    <p>Various including circumcision and tubal ligation (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which statement about intersex people is true?

    <p>They can have chromosomal variations (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What does the term 'germ cells' refer to in spermatogenesis?

    <p>Stem cells that can produce various types (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary function of the acrosome in sperm?

    <p>Preparation for fertilization (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What part of sperm is primarily responsible for providing energy for motility?

    <p>Mid-piece (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    How does the production rate of sperm in men compare to the ovulation of oocytes in women?

    <p>Men produce sperm continuously while women ovulate monthly (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the role of Leydig cells in male reproductive physiology?

    <p>Production of testosterone (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What happens to testosterone levels in males during childhood?

    <p>They are relatively low (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which hormone directly stimulates Leydig cells to produce testosterone?

    <p>Luteinizing hormone (LH) (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What anatomical structure must sperm pass through to reach the female reproductive tract?

    <p>Epididymis (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary function of the tail of the sperm?

    <p>Facilitation of movement (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following hormones acts to inhibit FSH release from the pituitary gland?

    <p>Inhibin (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What structure in the sperm is formed from one centriole during maturation?

    <p>Flagellum (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which hormone's pulsatile release stimulates the anterior pituitary gland?

    <p>Gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH) (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the size comparison between sperm cells and female gametes?

    <p>Sperm cells are significantly smaller than female gametes (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the role of Sertoli cells in the testes?

    <p>Regulation of spermatogenesis (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a key characteristic of testosterone's concentrations in the testes compared to the bloodstream?

    <p>100 times higher in the testes (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What hormone stimulates the release of LH from the anterior pituitary?

    <p>GnRH (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What process begins with the ovarian stem cells called oogonia?

    <p>Oogenesis (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    How many primary oocytes does a female approximately have at puberty?

    <p>400,000 (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What marks the transition from puberty into reproductive maturity in females?

    <p>Initiation of ovulation (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What hormone surge just prior to ovulation triggers the resumption of meiosis in a primary oocyte?

    <p>LH (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the larger daughter cell produced during oogenesis called?

    <p>Secondary oocyte (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What happens to the smaller cell produced during meiosis in females?

    <p>Eventually disintegrates (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What does a secondary oocyte become if penetrated by sperm?

    <p>Haploid ovum (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What term describes the death of ovarian follicles?

    <p>Atresia (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which cycle can be correlated with a females' reproductive changes every 28 days?

    <p>Ovarian cycle (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the outcome of cytoplasmic division during oogenesis?

    <p>One large cell and polar bodies are formed (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What do mitochondria in the developing embryo contain that is maternally inherited?

    <p>DNA (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary function of the larger cytoplasmic component in the ovum?

    <p>Support nutrient supply to developing zygote (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is one of the primary functions of the kidney?

    <p>Eliminate waste material from the bloodstream (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which hormone synthesized by the kidney helps regulate blood pressure?

    <p>Renin (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary role of the nephron in the kidney?

    <p>Filtration of blood (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What process occurs when the kidney reclaims filtered substances?

    <p>Reabsorption (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    How does the kidney produce concentrated urine?

    <p>Using hormones like antidiuretic hormone (ADH) (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What triggers the release of the oocyte during ovulation?

    <p>Surge of luteinizing hormone (LH) (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What happens to the polar body resulting from the unequal cell division during oocyte development?

    <p>It degrades (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What structure is formed from the collapsed follicle after ovulation?

    <p>Corpus luteum (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What hormone is primarily produced by the corpus luteum?

    <p>Progesterone (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What phase directly follows the menses phase in the menstrual cycle?

    <p>Proliferative phase (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What event marks the transition from the proliferative phase to the secretory phase?

    <p>Ovulation (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    During which phase is the endometrium primarily rebuilt?

    <p>Proliferative phase (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What triggers the shedding of the endometrial lining during the menstrual cycle?

    <p>Decrease in progesterone levels (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    How long does the average menses phase last?

    <p>3 to 7 days (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which hormones primarily drive the follicular and luteal phases of the ovarian cycle?

    <p>FSH and LH (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What happens to the corpus luteum if pregnancy does not occur?

    <p>It stops secreting hormones and degrades (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What effect does high estrogen have on the environment of the uterus?

    <p>Facilitates sperm transport (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What happens to FSH levels as estrogen levels rise during the menstrual cycle?

    <p>They decrease due to negative feedback (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    At approximately which day of a 28-day cycle does ovulation typically occur?

    <p>Day 14 (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the result of FSH stimulation in the ovarian cycle?

    <p>Stimulates the growth of tertiary follicles (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What role does the zona pellucida play during fertilization?

    <p>It acts as a barrier against multiple sperm (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What happens to the follicles that do not become the dominant one?

    <p>They undergo atresia (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What triggers the LH surge that leads to ovulation?

    <p>High concentrations of systemic plasma estrogen (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which hormone plays a role in the negative feedback loop during the follicular phase?

    <p>Estrogen (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a primary function of the theca cells in the ovarian follicles?

    <p>Produce estrogens (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    During which phase of the ovarian cycle is estrogen primarily produced by the follicles?

    <p>Follicular phase (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What significant change occurs in the granulosa cells as they transition from primary to secondary follicles?

    <p>They transition from flat to cuboidal shape (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following hormones is responsible for stimulating the production of estrogen during the ovarian cycle?

    <p>Luteinizing hormone (LH) (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary outcome of the process known as atresia?

    <p>Degeneration of non-dominant follicles (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    How long does it typically take for a primary follicle to develop into an early tertiary follicle?

    <p>Approximately 2 months (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What changes occur during the ovulation phase of the ovarian cycle?

    <p>The dominant follicle releases an oocyte (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary function of follicular fluid formed in secondary follicles?

    <p>Nourish the oocyte (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the role of GnRH in the ovarian cycle?

    <p>Regulates the release of LH and FSH (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What occurs after ovulation in the ovarian cycle?

    <p>Granulosa cells form the corpus luteum (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What typically triggers menses in women taking placebo pills?

    <p>Decline in hormone levels (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is one advantage of newer birth control pills that provide continuous hormone delivery?

    <p>They eliminate menstrual periods altogether (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What can result from skipping one or two birth control pills?

    <p>Ovulation may occur (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What initiates the development of the testes in embryos?

    <p>Presence of the SRY gene (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What initiates the secretory phase of the menstrual cycle in the uterus?

    <p>Progesterone from the corpus luteum (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What happens in the absence of the SRY gene during sexual development?

    <p>Development of a uterus and ovaries occurs (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What happens to the corpus luteum if fertilization does not occur within 10 to 12 days?

    <p>It degrades into the corpus albicans. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    How do interstitial (Leydig) cells contribute to male sexual development?

    <p>They secrete testosterone (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What occurs when the sustentacular (Sertoli) cells secrete a hormone in male development?

    <p>Degradation of the Müllerian duct (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which HPV strains are linked to the majority of cervical cancer cases?

    <p>HPV 16 and HPV 18 (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What effect does high-risk HPV have on the host cell's p53 protein?

    <p>It neutralizes the p53 protein. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What can lead to the development of intersex anatomy?

    <p>Excess hormone secretion beyond chromosomal expectations (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    In androgen insensitivity syndrome, what happens despite the presence of the SRY gene?

    <p>Receptors for androgens do not function (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What role does the HPV vaccine play in public health?

    <p>It reduces the rates of HPV infection among targeted strains. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following is NOT a risk factor for cervical cancer?

    <p>Use of hormonal birth control (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What condition results from increased androgen production in XX individuals?

    <p>Congenital Adrenal Hyperplasia (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary function of pap smears in healthcare?

    <p>To identify abnormal cells in the cervix (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    How is external genitalia development influenced?

    <p>By the degree of exposure to androgens (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    How do birth control pills primarily prevent ovulation?

    <p>By providing constant estrogen and progesterone (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What happens to the mesonephric duct without testosterone?

    <p>It degrades and prevents epididymis formation (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a common characteristic of low-risk HPV strains?

    <p>They can cause genital warts. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a key understanding about sexual anatomy variation?

    <p>It is a spectrum of normal human variation (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What causes the endometrial tissue to die and lead to menses if pregnancy does not occur?

    <p>Fall in estrogen and progesterone levels (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What does a decrease in androgen production lead to in XY individuals?

    <p>Micropenis (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is one of the major challenges in cervical cancer prevention in developing countries?

    <p>Infrequent pap smear screenings (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which type of hormonal birth control is commonly made up of active and inactive pills?

    <p>Birth control pills (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is one method used to remove pre-cancerous cells from the cervix?

    <p>Cryotherapy (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the likelihood of the body clearing an HPV infection within two years?

    <p>Usually clears in two years (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What physiological change occurs in the endometrial lining during the secretory phase?

    <p>It secretes glycogen-rich fluids. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the role of the uterosacral ligament?

    <p>To stabilize the uterus posteriorly (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which layer of the uterus is primarily responsible for uterine contractions?

    <p>Myometrium (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What type of cells are found in the inner mucosal layer of the uterine tubes?

    <p>Ciliated cells (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What can happen if bacteria enter the uterine tubes from the vagina?

    <p>Development of sepsis (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the size range of an ovary?

    <p>2 to 3 cm (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What type of secretion does the areola produce?

    <p>Lubricating fluid (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What type of tissue surrounds the lactiferous ducts in the breast?

    <p>Connective tissue (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What occurs during the contraction of myoepithelial cells in the mammary glands?

    <p>Milk ejection (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the outer covering of the ovary called?

    <p>Tunica albuginea (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which chamber of the penis surrounds the urethra?

    <p>Corpus spongiosum (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What characterizes the glans penis?

    <p>It has a high concentration of nerve endings (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following structures connects the ovary to the uterus?

    <p>Ovarian ligament (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is one potential outcome of pelvic inflammatory disease (PID)?

    <p>Scar tissue in the tubes (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which layer of the uterus is composed of epithelial tissue?

    <p>Perimetrium (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What primarily triggers the onset of puberty in individuals?

    <p>A concerted release of hormones from the hypothalamus, pituitary, and gonads (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which hormone is mainly responsible for stimulating the growth and maturation of the gonads during puberty?

    <p>FSH (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    During puberty, sensitivity to which of the following decreases significantly in the hypothalamus and pituitary?

    <p>Sex steroid hormones (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is one potential impact of improved nutrition on puberty onset in the past century?

    <p>Earlier age of menarche (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a common characteristic of puberty onset in lean and highly active individuals?

    <p>Delayed onset of puberty (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is typically the first physical sign of puberty in males?

    <p>Growth of the testes (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which physical change typically occurs in females during puberty due to increased estrogen levels?

    <p>Development of breast tissue (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What role does leptin play in the onset of puberty?

    <p>It is secreted by adipose cells and impacts menarche. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a primary function of GnRH during puberty?

    <p>To trigger the release of LH and FSH (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    During puberty, how does testosterone affect the voice of males?

    <p>It leads to a drop in pitch through larynx growth. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What typically occurs in both sexes as a result of increasing hormone levels at puberty?

    <p>Development of secondary sexual characteristics (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    At what average age does menarche typically begin in today's population?

    <p>12.75 years old (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is one of the hormonal changes that happens during the first stages of puberty?

    <p>Initial release of LH and FSH (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What changes occur in body height during puberty?

    <p>Height can increase significantly, averaging 3-4 inches per year (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the region called that lies between the two labia minora?

    <p>Vestibule (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which erectile tissue surrounds the vaginal and urethral orifices?

    <p>Corpus spongiosum (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary function of the labia minora?

    <p>To protect mucous membranes and orifices (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which part of the clitoris is mostly covered by the prepuce?

    <p>Glans (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the average length of the vagina?

    <p>10 cm (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which type of bacteria is predominantly found in a healthy vagina?

    <p>Lactobacillus (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the function of the cervix during the ovarian cycle?

    <p>To produce mucus secretions (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What structure is located between the opening of the urethra and the anus?

    <p>Vagina (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What kind of fluid do the female prostate glands release?

    <p>Fluid of female ejaculation (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What could disrupt the normal balance of healthy microorganisms in the vagina?

    <p>Douching (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which part of the uterus projects into the vagina?

    <p>Cervix (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What serves to maintain the position of the uterus in the abdominopelvic cavity?

    <p>Ligaments (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which layer of the vaginal walls allows for expansion?

    <p>Middle layer of smooth muscle (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the average size of the uterus?

    <p>5 cm wide by 7 cm long (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the role of lactic acid in the vagina?

    <p>To maintain acidic pH (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary function of the ductus deferens?

    <p>To transport sperm from the epididymis (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What component contributes the most volume to semen?

    <p>The seminal vesicles (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the purpose of the fluid released by the bulbourethral glands?

    <p>To lubricate the urethra and neutralize urine residues (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What does a vasectomy interrupt?

    <p>The path for sperm to exit the ductus deferens (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What condition is characterized by abnormal growth of the prostate?

    <p>Benign prostatic hyperplasia (BPH) (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which structure surrounds the prostatic urethra?

    <p>The prostate gland (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What helps sperm generate ATP for movement?

    <p>Fructose from seminal vesicle fluid (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is prostate cancer commonly detected through?

    <p>Blood tests and rectal exams (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the function of the prostate gland?

    <p>To excrete alkaline fluid to semen (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What does benign prostatic hyperplasia (BPH) typically lead to?

    <p>Enlarged prostate causing urethra constriction (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following statements about intersex individuals is true?

    <p>They may have variations in sex chromosomes and anatomy (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the function of the ampulla in the ductus deferens?

    <p>Dilated region where sperm mix with seminal fluid (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which hormone directly stimulates testosterone production in males?

    <p>Luteinizing hormone (LH) (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is pre-ejaculate fluid also known as?

    <p>Bulbourethral fluid (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary function of the foreskin?

    <p>To lubricate and protect the glans (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What indicates a testis that has not descended correctly?

    <p>Cryptorchidism (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the role of the tunica albuginea in the testes?

    <p>To support the testes and form lobules (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    How does sperm move from the seminiferous tubules to the epididymis?

    <p>Via smooth muscle contractions (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What temperature range is optimal for sperm production within the testes?

    <p>2 to 4°C below core body temperature (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the main function of the epididymis?

    <p>To mature and store sperm (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What structures are formed within the lobules of the testes?

    <p>Seminiferous tubules (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What hormone is produced by the testes that plays a key role in male reproductive physiology?

    <p>Testosterone (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary component of semen added by the prostate gland?

    <p>Nourishing fluids (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which structure is responsible for holding and elevating the testes?

    <p>Cremaster muscle (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What are the germ cells in the testis primarily responsible for?

    <p>Developing into sperm cells (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    How long does it typically take sperm to travel through the epididymis?

    <p>12 days (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What structure is primarily involved in the descent of the testes during fetal development?

    <p>Spermatic cord (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What protective layer surrounds each testis?

    <p>Tunica vaginalis (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the outermost layer of the skin called?

    <p>Epidermis (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which part of the ear is primarily responsible for converting sound vibrations into nerve signals?

    <p>Cochlea (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What role does melanin play in the skin?

    <p>Protects against UV radiation (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the main function of the glands located in the dermis?

    <p>Secrete sweat and oils (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which part of the eye is responsible for regulating the amount of light that enters?

    <p>Pupil (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What layer of skin primarily contains blood vessels and nerve fibers?

    <p>Dermis (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which structure is NOT considered part of the integumentary system?

    <p>Pancreas (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the role of sensory nerves in the dermis?

    <p>Facilitate communication with the brain (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary factor that determines skin color in individuals?

    <p>The amount of melanin produced by melanocytes (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What occurs when the skin is exposed to UV rays?

    <p>Melanin production increases (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What major effect does excessive melanin production have on vitamin D?

    <p>Decreases vitamin D synthesis (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What role do keratinocytes play in skin pigmentation?

    <p>They store melanin and can darken skin color. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a characteristic of moles?

    <p>They are benign accumulations of melanocytes. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What does albinism result from?

    <p>The inability of melanocytes to produce melanin (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Why do dark-skinned individuals generally sustain fewer sunburns than pale-skinned individuals?

    <p>They produce more melanin. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What happens to melanosomes over time in the skin?

    <p>They are destroyed by fusion with lysosomes. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the main consequence of too much sun exposure on the skin?

    <p>Destruction of cellular structure and potential for skin cancer (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the function of melanin in the skin?

    <p>To provide coloration and UV protection (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What type of epithelium is the epidermis primarily composed of?

    <p>Stratified squamous epithelium (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What characterizes thick skin compared to thin skin?

    <p>Presence of the stratum lucidum (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary role of keratinocytes in the epidermis?

    <p>To manufacture and store keratin (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which layer of the epidermis contains dead cells that are regularly shed?

    <p>Stratum corneum (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which type of cell is responsible for the pigmentation in the skin?

    <p>Melanocyte (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the deepest layer of the epidermis called?

    <p>Stratum basale (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    How many layers are present in the epidermis of thick skin?

    <p>Five layers (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which layer of the epidermis continuously undergoes mitosis to produce new cells?

    <p>Stratum basale (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a distinguishing feature of the cells in the stratum lucidum?

    <p>They have no nuclei and are densely packed (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which cell type serves as a receptor for touch sensation in the epidermis?

    <p>Merkel cell (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What type of collagen fibers connect the epidermis to the dermis?

    <p>Intertwining collagen fibers (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What type of keratinocytes are primarily found in the stratum corneum?

    <p>Dead keratinocytes (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which layer lies directly above the stratum basale?

    <p>Stratum spinosum (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    In which layer of the epidermis do cells begin to lose their nuclei?

    <p>Stratum granulosum (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What type of connective tissue primarily makes up the papillary layer of the dermis?

    <p>Loose, areolar connective tissue (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which structure primarily contributes to the formation of fingerprints?

    <p>Dermal papillae (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What primarily provides resilience to the skin within the reticular layer?

    <p>Elastin fibers (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which layer directly connects the skin to the underlying muscles?

    <p>Hypodermis (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which cells in the papillary layer help fight infections?

    <p>Phagocytes (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What does collagen in the skin primarily provide?

    <p>Structure and tensile strength (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which pigment is primarily responsible for skin color?

    <p>Melanin (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the main function of adipose tissue in the hypodermis?

    <p>Store fat and provide insulation (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary role of the Meissner corpuscles found in the papillary layer?

    <p>Detect touch (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which layer of the skin contains dermal papillae?

    <p>Papillary layer (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a significant consequence of aging on fat distribution in the body?

    <p>Fat distribution changes in both genders (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which factor influences where fat accumulates in the hypodermis?

    <p>Hormones and genetic factors (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which cells are primarily involved in the production of melanin?

    <p>Melanocytes (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What characterizes the reticular layer of the dermis?

    <p>Dense irregular connective tissue (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What type of connective tissue is dominant in the reticular layer?

    <p>Dense irregular connective tissue (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary function of Langerhans cells in the stratum spinosum?

    <p>Engulf bacteria and foreign particles (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which protein gives the stratum lucidum its transparent appearance?

    <p>Eleiden (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What occurs to keratinocytes as they move from the stratum spinosum to the stratum granulosum?

    <p>Their cell membranes thicken and they flatten. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the role of desmosomes in the stratum spinosum?

    <p>To interlock cells and strengthen their bond (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    How many layers of cells typically make up the stratum corneum?

    <p>15 to 30 layers (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the significance of the water-repelling glycolipid released by keratinocytes in the stratum spinosum?

    <p>It helps to prevent water loss from the body. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the main characteristic of the cells in the stratum lucidum?

    <p>They are dead and flattened. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What can be primarily observed in the micrograph of the epidermis at the stratum granulosum?

    <p>Granules rich in keratohyalin (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which layer of the skin serves as an anchor point for the epidermis?

    <p>Papillary layer of the dermis (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What happens to the nuclei of keratinocytes as they transition from the stratum granulosum to the stratum corneum?

    <p>They disintegrate. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What role do fibroblasts play in the dermis?

    <p>Produce collagenous and elastin fibers (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which layer of the epidermis is considered the thickest?

    <p>Stratum spinosum (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is primarily responsible for the mechanical protection of the underlying tissues in the stratum corneum?

    <p>Keratinization of cells (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is characteristic of keratinocytes during their transition from the stratum basale to the stratum spinosum?

    <p>They undergo active cell division. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following correctly describes the dermis?

    <p>It houses blood vessels and nerves. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the deepest layer of the skin called?

    <p>Hypodermis (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which part of the skin contains blood vessels and houses various structures?

    <p>Dermis (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary function of melanin in the skin?

    <p>Protects against UV radiation (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which gland is responsible for the production of sweat in the skin?

    <p>Eccrine gland (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What structure in the eye is primarily responsible for focusing light?

    <p>Cornea (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which part of the ear is responsible for converting sound vibrations into nerve impulses?

    <p>Cochlea (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which layer of skin serves as a barrier, protecting the underlying tissues?

    <p>Epidermis (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What type of tissue primarily composes the hypodermis?

    <p>Loose connective and fatty tissues (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary type of cells found in the epidermis after the stratum basale?

    <p>Keratinocytes (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which layer of the skin is thicker and only found on the palms and soles?

    <p>Thick skin (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What primary role does keratin play in the skin?

    <p>Gives strength and water-resistance (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    In which layer of the epidermis does mitosis primarily occur?

    <p>Stratum basale (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which layer is characterized by dead keratinocytes?

    <p>Stratum corneum (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What type of epithelium primarily composes the epidermis?

    <p>Stratified squamous epithelium (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the function of Merkel cells in the skin?

    <p>Act as receptors for touch (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which layer contains lamellar granules within keratinocytes?

    <p>Stratum granulosum (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which type of skin has a translucent layer due to fewer cell layers?

    <p>Thin skin (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    How does thick skin differ from thin skin?

    <p>Thick skin has a stratum lucidum (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What feature is present in the stratum basale that helps it attach to the dermis?

    <p>Collagen fibers (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary function of the stratum corneum?

    <p>Protection from the environment (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which component of skin cells helps resist water loss?

    <p>Keratin (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which layer of the epidermis is primarily responsible for keratin synthesis?

    <p>Stratum Spinosum (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which layer of the epidermis has a primarily cuboidal shape?

    <p>Stratum basale (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What type of cell is found within the stratum spinosum that functions as a macrophage?

    <p>Langerhans cell (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    In which layer of the epidermis do keratinocytes begin to flatten and lose their nuclei?

    <p>Stratum Granulosum (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What type of appearance does the stratum granulosum exhibit?

    <p>Grainy (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What protein found in the stratum lucidum contributes to its translucent appearance?

    <p>Eleiden (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the main characteristic of the stratum corneum?

    <p>It is composed of dead, flattened cells. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which layer of skin is avascular and relies on the dermis for nutrients?

    <p>Epidermis (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    How long does it typically take for the stratum corneum to be replaced?

    <p>4 weeks (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What type of connective tissue makes up the dermis?

    <p>Collagenous and elastin fibers (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary role of the papillary layer of the dermis?

    <p>To anchor the epidermis and supply nutrients (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What happens to the keratinocytes as they move from the stratum spinosum to the stratum granulosum?

    <p>They die and form a barrier. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which skin layer is primarily involved in protecting against microbial invasion?

    <p>Stratum Corneum (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What type of cells are primarily found in the stratum basale layer of the epidermis?

    <p>Keratinocytes (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What mainly causes the darkening of skin color in individuals with darker skin tones?

    <p>Higher levels of melanin produced by melanocytes (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What happens to melanosomes eventually after they release melanin?

    <p>They are destroyed through fusion with lysosomes (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the role of UV exposure in skin pigmentation?

    <p>It stimulates keratinocytes to secrete chemicals that stimulate melanocytes (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    How do pale-skinned individuals typically respond to initial sun exposure?

    <p>They tend to suffer sunburns of the epidermis (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a potential consequence of excessive melanin production?

    <p>Interference with vitamin D production (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What distinguishes eumelanin from pheomelanin?

    <p>Eumelanin provides black and brown color, while pheomelanin provides red color (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What skin condition results from an irregular accumulation of melanocytes?

    <p>Freckles (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following is a genetic disorder that affects skin pigmentation?

    <p>Albinism (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Why do dark-skinned individuals have a better natural protection against sunburns compared to pale-skinned individuals?

    <p>They produce more melanin (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What potential risk is associated with excessive sun exposure over time?

    <p>Skin cancer due to DNA damage (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What type of connective tissue primarily composes the papillary layer of the dermis?

    <p>Loose areolar connective tissue (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which structures are found in the papillary layer of the dermis?

    <p>Dermal papillae and fibroblasts (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary role of collagen fibers in the reticular layer of the dermis?

    <p>To impart structure and tensile strength (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which feature characterizes the reticular layer of the dermis?

    <p>Thick and densely packed fiber bundles (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What primarily distinguishes the hypodermis from the dermis?

    <p>Function in fat storage and insulation (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following statements about dermal papillae is true?

    <p>They form ridges in the epidermis contributing to fingerprints. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    How much of the dermis is comprised of the reticular layer?

    <p>80% (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following pigments significantly affects skin color?

    <p>Carotene (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What role do Meissner corpuscles play in the dermis?

    <p>They serve as touch receptors. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary function of the collagen fibers in the dermal layer?

    <p>To provide structural integrity (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which component is most responsible for the elasticity of the skin?

    <p>Elastin fibers (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a primary consequence of insufficient exercise combined with high-calorie food consumption?

    <p>Accumulation of adipose tissue (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What role do collagen injections play in skin care?

    <p>They restore skin turgor (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Flashcards

    Melanin's role in skin

    Melanin protects skin from UV radiation by absorbing harmful UV rays.

    Mechanical Digestion

    Physical breakdown of food, increasing surface area for chemical digestion.

    Kidney Function

    Kidneys filter blood, create urine to remove waste, and maintain homeostasis.

    Neurons

    Cells that transmit nerve impulses throughout the nervous system.

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    Cornea's role

    Transparent outer layer of the eye, refracts light, focusing it on the retina.

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    Micturition Reflex

    Automatic process of emptying the bladder (urination).

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    Parietal Cavity's role

    Space containing internal organs, provides cushioning.

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    Negative Feedback

    Process where a change triggers a response to reduce or counteract the initial change.

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    Sex vs. Gender

    Sex refers to biological traits, while gender is socially constructed and related to behavioral, cultural and psychological traits.

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    Intersex individuals

    People with variations in sex chromosomes, anatomy, or sex characteristics.

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    Sertoli cells

    Supporting cells in the testes that help produce sperm and control germ cell survival.

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    Spermatogonia

    Stem cells of the testis that create sperm.

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    Spermatogenesis

    The process of sperm production in the testes.

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    Seminiferous tubules

    Tubules in the testes where sperm are made.

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    Blood-testis barrier

    Protection for developing germ cells by keeping them separate from the bloodstream.

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    Mitosis

    Cell division that produces two identical diploid cells.

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    Meiosis I

    First stage of meiosis, separating chromosome pairs.

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    Meiosis II

    Second stage of meiosis, dividing replicated chromosomes.

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    Spermatids

    Immature sperm cells.

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    Spermiogenesis

    Process of changing spermatids into mature sperm.

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    Diploid cell

    A cell containing two sets of chromosomes.

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    Haploid cell

    A cell containing one set of chromosomes.

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    Primary Spermatocyte

    Cell following spermatogonia, before meiosis I.

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    Sperm volume

    Significantly smaller than female gametes (oocytes).

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    Daily sperm production

    100-300 million sperm per day in men.

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    Sperm head

    Contains a haploid nucleus with little cytoplasm.

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    Acrosome

    Lysosome-containing structure at the sperm head, aiding fertilization.

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    Sperm mid-piece

    Contains mitochondria for ATP production.

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    Sperm flagellum

    Tail region that propels the sperm cell.

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    Testosterone

    Androgen hormone produced by Leydig cells in testes.

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    Leydig cells

    Cells in the testes that produce testosterone.

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    Epididymis

    Structure for sperm maturation after leaving the testes.

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    GnRH

    Hormone that initiates testosterone production.

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    LH

    Pituitary hormone that promotes Leydig cell function.

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    FSH

    Pituitary hormone that aids spermatogenesis.

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    Inhibin

    Protein that regulates FSH release, affecting sperm production.

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    GnRH's role

    GnRH (gonadotropin-releasing hormone) is released from the hypothalamus and stimulates the anterior pituitary to secrete LH (luteinizing hormone) and FSH (follicle-stimulating hormone).

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    Testosterone feedback

    Testosterone, once produced by Leydig cells, inhibits the release of GnRH and LH through negative feedback, preventing excessive testosterone production.

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    FSH and Inhibin

    FSH (follicle-stimulating hormone) stimulates spermatogenesis (sperm production), while inhibin inhibits FSH release, regulating sperm production.

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    Ovarian Cycle

    A monthly series of changes in a woman's ovaries involving oogenesis (egg production) and folliculogenesis (follicle growth).

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    Oogenesis

    The production of female gametes (eggs) starting from oogonia (ovarian stem cells).

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    Oogonia

    Ovarian stem cells that divide mitotically during fetal development to form primary oocytes.

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    Primary Oocyte

    An immature egg cell arrested in meiosis I, formed before birth and resuming at puberty.

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    Ovulation

    The release of a mature egg from the ovary, marking the transition into reproductive maturity for women.

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    Secondary Oocyte

    A larger daughter cell formed after meiosis I resumes, eventually released during ovulation.

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    Polar Body

    A smaller daughter cell formed during oogenesis that eventually disintegrates.

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    Ovum

    The mature haploid female gamete, formed after meiosis II is completed by sperm penetration.

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    Folliculogenesis

    The growth and development of ovarian follicles, culminating in ovulation of one follicle every 28 days.

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    Atresia

    The death of ovarian follicles at any point during follicular development.

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    Primordial Follicle

    The resting state of ovarian follicles, present in newborns and persisting until puberty.

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    Granulosa Cells

    Support cells that surround the oocyte in a primordial follicle.

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    Secondary Follicle

    A follicle stage marked by multiple layers of granulosa cells, a developing zona pellucida, and a thin layer of theca cells.

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    Zona Pellucida

    A thin, transparent layer surrounding the oocyte, essential for sperm binding during fertilization.

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    Theca Cells

    Cells surrounding the granulosa cells, contributing to estrogen production.

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    Tertiary Follicle

    A mature follicle with a large antrum, filled with follicular fluid, ready for ovulation.

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    Antrum

    A large fluid-filled cavity within a tertiary follicle.

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    Follicular Fluid

    Fluid within the antrum of a tertiary follicle, supporting oocyte development and nourishing the follicle.

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    Hormonal Control of Ovulation

    The process of hormone regulation during the ovarian cycle, orchestrated by GnRH, FSH, LH, and estrogen.

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    Estrogen

    Sex steroid hormone produced by the ovaries, responsible for various female biological and reproductive functions.

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    LH Surge Triggered

    The luteinizing hormone (LH) surge stimulates proteases to break down proteins in the ovary wall.

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    Corpus Luteum

    A temporary endocrine structure formed from the collapsed follicle after ovulation, secreting progesterone.

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    Luteinization

    Conversion of the granulosa and theca cells into luteal cells, forming the corpus luteum.

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    Progesterone's Role

    Progesterone, produced by the corpus luteum, supports pregnancy.

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    Negative Feedback in Ovarian Cycle

    Progesterone inhibits GnRH, LH, and FSH secretion, preventing new follicle development.

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    Luteal Phase

    The post-ovulatory phase marked by progesterone secretion by the corpus luteum.

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    Corpus Albicans

    A non-functional, white body that forms when the corpus luteum degrades.

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    Menstrual Cycle Timing

    Starts on the first day of menses (day 1) and is measured by the days between two subsequent cycles.

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    Average Menstrual Cycle Length

    Approximately 28 days, but can vary from 21 to 32 days.

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    Hormonal Control of Menstrual Cycle

    Estrogen and progesterone from the ovary control the three phases of the menstrual cycle.

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    Menses Phase

    The phase of bleeding, where the endometrial lining is shed.

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    Proliferative Phase

    The phase of endometrial growth and rebuilding, driven by estrogen from the developing follicles.

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    Secretory Phase

    The phase when the corpus luteum secretes progesterone, preparing the endometrium for implantation.

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    Intersex Anatomy

    Individuals with intersex anatomy have variations in their sex chromosomes, anatomy, or sex characteristics, a natural variation of human development.

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    Puberty

    The stage of human development when individuals become sexually mature, characterized by changes in the body and reproductive system.

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    Hormones of Puberty

    Hormones like LH, FSH, testosterone, and estrogen are involved in puberty, stimulating the development of the reproductive system and secondary sex characteristics.

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    LH and FSH

    Luteinizing hormone (LH) and follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH) are released by the pituitary gland and stimulate the gonads to produce sex hormones.

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    Secondary Sex Characteristics

    Physical changes that occur during puberty due to the influence of sex hormones, such as breast development, voice deepening, and body hair growth.

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    Menarche

    The first menstrual period, a significant milestone in female puberty triggered by estrogen production.

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    Growth Spurt

    A period of rapid growth in height during puberty, influenced by sex hormones.

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    Mons Pubis

    A pad of fat located over the pubic bone, which becomes covered in pubic hair after puberty.

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    Labia Majora

    Larger folds of skin surrounding the vaginal opening, become covered with hair during puberty.

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    Labia Minora

    Smaller folds of skin inside the labia majora, more pigmented.

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    Spiral Arteries

    Blood vessels in the endometrium that develop during the secretory phase, supplying blood to the thickened lining.

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    Menses

    The shedding of the uterine lining (endometrium) during menstruation, triggered by a decrease in hormones and prostaglandins.

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    High-Risk HPV

    Types of HPV with a higher likelihood of causing cervical cancer, such as HPV 16 and HPV 18.

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    Low-Risk HPV

    Types of HPV less likely to cause cancer, but can lead to genital warts.

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    Pap Smear

    A screening test to detect abnormal cells in the cervix, helping to prevent cervical cancer.

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    p53 Protein

    A tumor suppressor protein that normally stops cell division with damaged DNA.

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    HPV Vaccine

    A vaccine that helps protect against cervical cancer caused by high-risk HPV types.

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    Birth Control Pills

    Hormonal contraceptives that prevent ovulation by mimicking pregnancy hormones.

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    FSH and LH

    Hormones involved in regulating the menstrual cycle, follicle growth, and ovulation.

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    Uterosacral ligament

    A ligament that connects the cervix to the pelvic wall, providing posterior support to the uterus.

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    Perimetrium

    The outermost layer of the uterus, made of epithelial tissue that covers its exterior.

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    Myometrium

    The middle layer of the uterus, composed of smooth muscle responsible for contractions.

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    Endometrium

    The innermost layer of the uterus, responsible for shedding during menstruation.

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    Stratum functionalis

    The superficial layer of the endometrium, shed during menstruation.

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    Fimbriae

    Finger-like projections at the end of the fallopian tubes, responsible for sweeping the egg towards the tube.

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    Isthmus

    The narrow, medial portion of the fallopian tube connecting to the uterus.

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    Ampulla

    The middle, wider region of the fallopian tube where fertilization typically occurs.

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    Ovarian ligament

    The ligament that connects the ovary to the uterus.

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    Tunica albuginea

    The dense connective tissue layer beneath the outer covering of the ovary.

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    Ovarian stroma

    The tissue framework that forms the bulk of the adult ovary.

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    Lactiferous ducts

    Ducts that carry milk from the mammary glands to the nipple.

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    Alveoli

    Clusters of milk-secreting cells in the mammary glands.

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    Corpus cavernosum

    The two larger erectile tissue chambers in the penis, responsible for erection.

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    Glomerular filtration

    The process where blood pressure forces fluid and small solutes from blood in the glomerulus into Bowman's capsule, forming filtrate.

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    Reabsorption

    The process of reclaiming essential nutrients, water, and electrolytes from the filtrate back into the bloodstream.

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    Secretion

    The active transport of waste products and excess substances from the blood into the filtrate for excretion in urine.

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    Concentrated vs. dilute urine

    The kidney regulates urine concentration by adjusting water reabsorption, using hormones like ADH to conserve water and produce concentrated urine or excrete excess water in diluted urine.

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    Prepuce

    The fold of skin covering the glans penis, also known as foreskin.

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    Circumcision

    Surgical removal of the prepuce, often done for religious or social reasons.

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    Scrotum

    The sac of skin containing the testes, keeping them at a cooler temperature for sperm production.

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    Tunica Vaginalis

    A protective serous membrane covering the testes.

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    Ductus Deferens

    A tube that carries mature sperm from the epididymis to the urethra.

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    Seminal Vesicles

    Glands that contribute fluids to semen, providing nutrients and lubrication for sperm.

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    Prostate Gland

    A gland that secretes fluids to nourish and maintain the sperm, part of semen.

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    Sperm

    Male reproductive cells, carrying genetic material for fertilization.

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    Cryptorchidism

    A condition where one or both testes fail to descend into the scrotum.

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    Dartos Muscle

    A muscle in the scrotum that helps regulate testes temperature by contracting or relaxing.

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    What is the vulva?

    The vulva is the external female genitalia, encompassing the mons pubis, labia majora, labia minora, and vestibule.

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    Clitoris: What makes it unique?

    The clitoris consists of erectile tissue (corpus cavernosum) and is highly sensitive due to a dense network of nerve endings, making it the primary erogenous zone for women.

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    What is the female prostate?

    A group of glands surrounding the urethra, known as the female prostate, releases fluids during female ejaculation. It produces a fluid similar to the male prostate.

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    Greater Vestibular Glands

    Paired glands located near the vaginal opening (Bartholin's glands) that secrete mucus to lubricate the vestibule.

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    What is the vagina?

    The vagina is a muscular canal about 10cm long, connecting the uterus to the external environment, playing a role in sexual intercourse and childbirth.

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    What is the hymen?

    A thin membrane that sometimes partially covers the vaginal opening. Its presence does not indicate 'virginity'.

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    Vaginal Microflora

    Lactobacillus bacteria are dominant in a healthy vagina, creating an acidic environment, protecting against infections.

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    What is douching?

    Washing the vagina with fluid. It disrupts the natural balance of beneficial bacteria, increasing infection risk.

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    Uterus anatomy

    The uterus has three parts: fundus (top), body (middle), and cervix (lower, projecting into the vagina) which produces mucus that varies throughout the menstrual cycle.

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    What is the cervix?

    The lower, narrow part of the uterus, projecting into the vagina, that produces mucus and has an opening (os) for menstrual flow and sperm passage.

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    Uterine Ligaments

    Ligaments like the broad ligament and round ligament hold the uterus in place within the pelvic cavity.

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    What are the ovaries?

    Paired organs responsible for egg production and hormone secretion (estrogen and progesterone), influencing the menstrual cycle.

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    What are fallopian tubes?

    Tubal structures that connect the ovaries to the uterus, where fertilization occurs and the fertilized egg travels to the uterus.

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    What is the role of estrogen?

    Estrogen is a primary female sex hormone secreted by the ovaries, responsible for female sexual development and regulating the menstrual cycle.

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    What is progesterone?

    A hormone secreted by the ovaries, preparing the uterine lining for pregnancy and regulating the menstrual cycle.

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    What is the ductus deferens?

    A thick, muscular tube that carries sperm from the epididymis to the ejaculatory duct.

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    Vasectomy

    A surgical sterilization procedure where a portion of the ductus deferens is cut and sealed, preventing sperm from being ejaculated.

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    Ejaculatory Duct

    A short structure formed by the ampulla and seminal vesicle duct, transporting the seminal fluid to the prostate.

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    Bulbourethral glands

    Two glands that release a lubricating fluid before ejaculation, neutralizing urine residues in the urethra.

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    Benign Prostatic Hyperplasia (BPH)

    Abnormal growth of the prostate gland causing urethral constriction and urinary problems.

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    Prostate cancer

    Cancer affecting the prostate gland, with varying aggressiveness and requiring different treatments.

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    Intersex

    Individuals with variations in sex chromosomes, anatomy, or sex characteristics, existing beyond the male/female binary.

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    Heterocentric Language

    Language assuming sex only occurs between a cis-gendered man and woman, for reproduction, lacking inclusivity.

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    What is Semen?

    The thick, milky fluid ejaculated during sexual intercourse, composed of sperm and secretions from accessory glands.

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    Importance of Seminal Vesicle fluid

    Contains fructose which provides energy for sperm to move towards the egg, enabling successful fertilization

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    What is Pre-ejaculate?

    Fluid released from the bulbourethral glands before ejaculation, lubricating the urethra and helping to neutralize urine residues

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    What is bipotential tissue?

    Tissue that has the potential to develop into either testes or ovaries.

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    What does SRY do?

    The SRY gene on the Y chromosome initiates the cascade of events leading to testis development and suppresses ovary development.

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    What happens without SRY?

    Without a functional SRY gene, an individual will typically develop a uterus and ovaries.

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    What happens to germ cells during male development?

    In the presence of SRY, germ cells in bipotential gonads differentiate into spermatogonia.

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    What happens to germ cells during female development?

    Without SRY, germ cells differentiate into oogonia, and primordial follicles develop.

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    What is testosterone's role in sexual development?

    Testosterone influences bipotential tissues, such as the glans, to develop into male characteristics.

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    What are paramesonephric ducts?

    Rudimentary duct systems in the embryo that can develop into the uterus, uterine tubes, and part of the vagina.

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    What are mesonephric ducts?

    Rudimentary duct systems in the embryo that can develop into the epididymis, ductus deferens, and seminal vesicles.

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    What do Sertoli cells secrete?

    Sertoli cells secrete a hormone that triggers degradation of the paramesonephric duct, preventing the uterus from developing.

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    What is androgen insensitivity syndrome?

    A condition where individuals with XY chromosomes and an SRY gene cannot respond to testosterone due to a lack of receptors.

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    What is congenital adrenal hyperplasia?

    A condition where XX individuals have an increase in androgen production by the adrenal glands.

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    What causes micropenis?

    A decrease in the expected androgen production in an XY individual can lead to a smaller-than-average penis.

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    What is the significance of the spectrum of normal human variation?

    It recognizes that sexual anatomy can vary naturally and does not require surgical treatment.

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    What is the role of the ovarian cycle?

    A monthly series of changes in the ovaries involving oogenesis (egg production) and folliculogenesis (follicle growth).

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    What happens during ovulation?

    A mature egg is released from the ovary, marking the transition into reproductive maturity for women.

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    Dermis

    The middle layer of skin, made of dense connective tissue, containing blood vessels, hair follicles, sweat glands, and sensory receptors.

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    Hypodermis

    The deepest layer of skin, composed of loose connective and fatty tissues, providing insulation and cushioning.

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    Melanin's Role

    Melanin, a pigment produced by melanocytes, protects the skin from harmful UV radiation by absorbing it.

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    Sweat Glands

    Sweat glands release sweat, helping regulate body temperature through evaporation.

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    Cornea

    The transparent outer layer of the eye, refracting light and focusing it onto the retina.

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    Retina

    The light-sensitive inner layer of the eye, containing photoreceptor cells that convert light into electrical signals.

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    Iris

    The colored part of the eye, regulating the amount of light entering the pupil.

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    Reticular Layer

    The deeper, thicker layer of the dermis, composed of dense irregular connective tissue, providing strength and flexibility to the skin.

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    Papillary Layer

    The superficial layer of the dermis, made of loose areolar connective tissue, containing dermal papillae that project into the epidermis.

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    Dermal Papillae

    Finger-like projections from the papillary layer of the dermis that extend into the epidermis.

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    Adipose Tissue

    Fat-storing tissue found in the hypodermis, providing insulation and cushioning for the skin.

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    Fibroblasts

    Cells in the dermis that produce collagen and elastin fibers, providing structure and elasticity to the skin.

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    Elastin Fibers

    Fibers in the dermis that provide flexibility and elasticity, allowing the skin to stretch and return to its original shape.

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    Collagen Fibers

    Strong, fibrous proteins in the dermis that provide tensile strength and structure to the skin.

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    Melanin

    A pigment produced by melanocytes in the epidermis, giving skin its color and protecting it from UV radiation.

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    Melanocytes

    Specialized cells in the stratum basale of the epidermis that produce and transfer melanin to keratinocytes.

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    Keratinocytes

    The most abundant cells in the epidermis, filled with keratin, which provides strength and protection to the skin.

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    Touch Receptors

    Specialized nerve endings in the dermis that sense touch and pressure.

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    Meissner Corpuscles

    Touch receptors found in the papillary layer of the dermis, responsible for light touch sensation.

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    Phagocytes

    Defensive cells in the dermis that engulf and destroy bacteria and other invaders.

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    Stratum Spinosum

    A layer of the epidermis composed of 8-10 layers of keratinocytes, characterized by its spiny appearance due to cell processes joined by desmosomes and containing Langerhans cells.

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    Desmosomes

    Structures that connect cells together, particularly prominent in the stratum spinosum, providing strength and stability to the epidermis.

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    Langerhans Cells

    Dendritic cells found in the stratum spinosum that act as macrophages, engulfing bacteria, foreign particles, and damaged cells, helping to protect the skin.

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    Stratum Granulosum

    A layer of the epidermis characterized by its grainy appearance due to the presence of keratin and keratohyalin granules within the cells.

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    Stratum Lucidum

    A translucent layer of the epidermis, found only in thick skin like the palms and soles, composed of flattened, dead cells rich in eleidin.

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    Stratum Corneum

    The outermost layer of the epidermis, composed of dead, flattened keratinocytes, acting as a barrier against microbes, dehydration, and abrasion.

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    Avascular

    Lacking blood vessels.

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    Pheomelanin

    A type of melanin that produces red or yellowish pigments.

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    Tanning

    The darkening of skin due to increased melanin production after exposure to UV radiation.

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    Freckles

    Small, flat, brown spots on the skin caused by a localized accumulation of melanocytes.

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    Albinism

    A genetic disorder that results in a complete or partial lack of melanin production.

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    UV Radiation

    A type of electromagnetic radiation emitted by the sun that can damage skin cells.

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    Stratum Basale

    The deepest layer of the epidermis, responsible for producing new keratinocytes and containing melanocytes.

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    Thin Skin

    Skin with four layers (basale, spinosum, granulosum, corneum), found over most of the body. It is thinner and more flexible than thick skin.

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    Thick Skin

    Skin with five layers (basale, spinosum, granulosum, lucidum, corneum), found only on palms and soles. It is thicker and tougher than thin skin.

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    Merkel Cells

    Sensory receptors found in the stratum basale that detect touch and pressure.

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    Basement Membrane

    A thin, non-cellular layer that anchors the epidermis to the underlying dermis, providing structural support.

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    Collagen

    A fibrous protein found in the dermis, providing strength and structure to the skin.

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    Hair Follicles

    Structures in the dermis that produce hair fibers. They extend from the surface of the skin to the subcutaneous layer.

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    Skin Glands

    Glands in the skin, like sweat glands and sebaceous glands, play different roles: sweat glands help regulate body temperature, while sebaceous glands produce oil to keep skin moisturized.

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    Hearing Process

    Sound waves are funneled through the outer ear, vibrated through the middle ear, and converted into electrical signals in the inner ear, transmitted to the brain.

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    Thick Skin vs. Thin Skin

    Thick skin contains an additional layer, the stratum lucidum, found only on the palms and soles, providing increased protection.

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    What are the functions of the epidermis?

    The epidermis acts as a protective barrier against external threats, regulates water loss, and contributes to sensory perception.

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    What are the layers of the epidermis (from deepest to superficial)?

    Stratum basale, stratum spinosum, stratum granulosum, stratum lucidum (in thick skin only), and stratum corneum.

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    What are the functions of the dermis?

    The dermis provides structural support for the skin, contains blood vessels and nerves, and houses hair follicles and glands.

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    What are the major components of the dermis?

    The dermis is mainly composed of connective tissue, including collagen and elastin fibers, which provide strength and flexibility.

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    What are the functions of the hypodermis?

    The hypodermis acts as a shock absorber, insulator, and energy storage for the body.

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    Keratohyalin

    A protein that accumulates as lamellar granules within the stratum granulosum, contributing to the grainy appearance of the layer.

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    Integumentary System

    The organ system that includes the skin, hair, nails, and glands, providing protection, thermoregulation, and sensation.

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    Tanning: How it Works

    Exposure to UV rays stimulates melanocytes to produce melanin. Melanosomes containing melanin are released by melanocytes and are taken up by keratinocytes, darkening the skin.

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    Too Much Melanin

    Excessive melanin production can interfere with vitamin D synthesis, which is important for calcium absorption. This highlights the balance between protection and health.

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    What Causes Freckles

    Freckles are caused by an irregular accumulation of melanocytes in the skin, leading to localized areas of pigmentation.

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    Moles: What To Know

    Moles are larger masses of melanocytes. Most are benign, but changes in appearance should be monitored for potential skin cancer.

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    Albinism: Lack of Melanin

    Albinism is a genetic disorder that affects the production of melanin, resulting in a lack of pigmentation in the skin, hair, and eyes.

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    What is Vitiligo?

    Vitiligo is a disorder where the skin loses its pigmentation, causing white patches to appear. It's caused by the loss of melanocytes in certain areas of the skin.

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    Skin Disorders: Common & Serious

    Many skin disorders are benign, but some, like melanomas, can be fatal if not treated. Examining the skin is important during medical checkups.

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    Melanocyte Function

    Melanocytes are specialized cells located in the stratum basale layer of the epidermis. They produce and release melanin, which is involved in skin pigmentation and UV protection.

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    Melanosomes: Melanin Carriers

    Melanosomes are small, membrane-bound organelles that contain melanin. They are produced by melanocytes and migrate to keratinocytes, transferring melanin for skin pigmentation.

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    Reticular Layer of the Dermis

    The deeper layer of the dermis, composed of dense irregular connective tissue, providing strength and flexibility to the skin.

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    Hypodermis (Subcutaneous Layer)

    The layer directly below the dermis, connecting the skin to underlying structures, containing fat for insulation and cushioning.

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    Fingerprints

    Unique ridge patterns on the fingers formed during fetal development where the stratum basale meets dermal papillae.

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    Papillary Layer of the Dermis

    The superficial layer of the dermis, made of loose areolar connective tissue, containing fibroblasts, blood vessels, and touch receptors.

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    Skin Functions

    The skin protects against injury and infection, regulates body temperature, and helps with sensory perception.

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    Dense Irregular Connective Tissue

    The type of connective tissue found in the reticular layer of the dermis, providing strength and flexibility in multiple directions.

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    Ground Substance

    The non-cellular component of connective tissue, found in the dermis, supporting the fibers and cells.

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    Study Notes

    Skin Structure and Function

    • Skin is a complex organ composed of multiple layers, including epidermis, dermis, and hypodermis.
    • Epidermis is the outer protective layer comprised of stratified squamous epithelium.
    • Dermis sits beneath the epidermis, containing connective tissue, blood vessels, nerve endings, and various glands.
    • Hypodermis, also known as subcutaneous tissue, lies below the dermis and contains adipose tissue.
    • Skin's primary functions include protection, sensation, temperature regulation, and excretion.

    Role of Melanin

    • Melanin is a pigment produced by melanocytes in the epidermis.
    • Melanin provides pigmentation to skin, hair, and eyes.
    • Melanin absorbs ultraviolet (UV) radiation, protecting underlying tissues from damage.
    • Amount of melanin varies by individual and can influence skin color.

    Role of Glands in the Skin

    • Sebaceous glands secrete sebum, a oily substance that lubricates and waterproofs skin.
    • Sweat glands produce sweat, for thermoregulation and waste elimination.
    • Specialized sweat glands (apocrine) are present in some areas of the body, such as the armpits and groin.

    Eye Structures and Functions

    • Cornea: Transparent outer layer, crucial for light refraction.
    • Retina: Contains photoreceptor cells (rods and cones) for vision.
    • Iris: Controls the size of the pupil, regulating light entry.
    • Optic Nerve: Transmits visual signals from the retina to the brain.

    Process of Hearing and Ear Parts

    • Outer ear (pinna and auditory canal): Collects and channels sound waves.
    • Middle ear (malleus, incus, and stapes): Amplifies sound waves and transmits them to the inner ear.
    • Inner ear (cochlea and semicircular canals): Converts sound waves into nerve impulses and maintains balance.

    Hair and Nail Structure

    • Hair follicles are structures where hair grows.
    • Nails are keratinized plates formed from epithelial cells.

    GI System

    • Mechanical Digestion: Includes chewing and churning food to break it down.

    • Chemical Digestion: Enzymatic breakdown of complex nutrients into simpler units (e.g., carbohydrates into sugars).

    • Alimentary Canal Structures and Functions:

      • Mouth: Ingestion and initial mechanical digestion (chewing).
      • Esophagus: Transports food from mouth to stomach.
      • Stomach: Churns food, mixes with enzymes, initiates protein digestion.
      • Small intestine: Absorption of nutrients; major site of chemical digestion.
      • Large intestine: Absorption of water and electrolytes; formation of feces.
      • Rectum: Storage of feces.
      • Anus: Elimination of feces.

    • Liver Function: Processes nutrients, produces bile for fat digestion, and regulates carbohydrate metabolism.

    • Pancreatic Exocrine Function: Secretes digestive enzymes (amylase, lipase, protease) into the small intestine.

    • Fat-Soluble Vitamins: Vitamins A, D, E, and K; absorbed with fats.

    • Peritoneal Cavity: The space surrounding and holding the abdominal organs. It contains lubricating fluid to assist in movement.

    • Importance of the peritoneum: It prevents friction between the visceral and parietal organs.

    Endocrine System

    • Endocrine system characteristics: Uses hormones to regulate bodily functions through feedback loops. - Negative feedback: Prevents overproduction of a hormone. - Positive feedback: Enhances production of a hormone. - Paracrine: Hormone acts on nearby cells. - Autocrine: Hormone acts on the same cell that released it.
    • Major Endocrine Glands and Functions:
      • Hypothalamus: Controls the pituitary gland, regulating hormone release.
      • Pituitary Gland: Regulates various functions like growth, metabolism, and reproduction.
      • Thyroid Gland: Regulates metabolism; effects growth and development.
      • Parathyroid Glands: Regulates calcium levels.
      • Pancreas: Secretes insulin and glucagon for controlling blood sugar levels.
    • ADH & oxytocin: Secreted by the posterior pituitary; ADH regulates water balance & oxytocin stimulates uterine contractions and milk secretion.
    • Epinephrine (adrenaline): Secreted by adrenal medulla; increases heart rate, blood pressure, and glucose levels (fight-or-flight response).
    • Circadian rhythm hormones and glands: Regulated by the hypothalamus and pineal gland; affecting sleep-wake cycle.
    • Aldosterone function: Regulates sodium and potassium balance in the kidneys; secreted by adrenal cortex.

    Lymphatic and Immune System

    • Immune Cells and Functions:
      • Neutrophils: Phagocytic cells; play a role in early immune response.
      • Lymphocytes: Cells like T cells and B cells crucial for specific immune responses.
      • Antigens: Substances that trigger an immune response.
    • Lymphatic System Structure and Functions: Lymphatic fluid, lymph nodes, lymph vessels.
      • Lymph nodes filter lymph fluid.
      • Lymphatic vessels drain fluids accumulating from tissues.
    • Inflammatory Process: Series of reactions defending against harmful stimuli.
    • Factors Promoting Lymph Flow: Muscle contractions, changes in body pressure, valves.
    • Passive and Active Immunity: Passive immunity is temporary protection from an outside source (e.g., antibodies); active immunity develops through exposure to pathogens.
    • The lymphatic system plays a vital role in fluid balance, immune defense and fat absorption.

    Renal System

    • Kidney Structures and Functions:
      • Kidneys, which filter blood to produce urine.
    • Blood Filtration to Urine Formation: Blood is filtered in the glomerulus, then useful substances are reabsorbed, and waste products are secreted into the urine.
      • The filtrate moves from the glomerulus to Bowman's capsule, then proceeds through other parts of the nephron.
    • Micturition Reflex: The process of expelling urine from the bladder.
    • ADH & Aldosterone in Renal Function: Hormones that regulate blood pressure and fluid balance through water reabsorption and sodium balance.

    Nervous System

    • Somatic, Autonomic, Central, and Peripheral Functions:
      • Somatic: Controls voluntary muscles.
      • Autonomic: Regulates involuntary functions (heart rate, digestion).
      • Central: Brain and spinal cord.
      • Peripheral: Nerves throughout the body, connecting to the central nervous system.
    • Afferent/Efferent: Afferent neurons carry sensory information to the CNS; efferent neurons carry motor signals from the CNS.
    • Neuron Components & Communication: Dendrites, soma, axon, synapse, neurotransmitter release.
    • Cranial Nerves versus Spinal Nerves: Cranial nerves originate from the brain; spinal nerves from the spinal cord.
    • Neurons and Their Functions: Specialized cells transmitting information throughout the nervous system.
    • Chemoreceptors, Osmoreceptors, Nociceptors, and Thermoreceptors: Sensory neurons detecting chemical changes, osmotic pressure, pain, and temperature, respectively.
    • Brain Lobes and Functions: Frontal (decision-making); parietal (processing sensory information); temporal (hearing and language); occipital (vision).
    • Autonomic Nervous System (ANS): Sympathetic and parasympathetic branches, regulating involuntary functions.

    Cerebrospinal Fluid (CSF)**

    • CSF functions: Protects the brain and spinal cord; cushions them and removes metabolic waste.

    • Role of Myelin: Insulates axons, increasing the speed of nerve impulse transmission.

    Reproductive Systems

    • Uterus Function: A muscular organ where the fertilized egg implants and grows into a fetus.

    • Uterine Tubes (Fallopian Tubes): Transports the ovum from the ovary to the uterus.

    • Mammary Glands Hormones: Hormones like prolactin and oxytocin stimulate milk production and ejection.

    • Male Reproductive System Components and Hormones: Testes (sperm production and testosterone); epididymis; vas deferens; accessory glands (seminal vesicles, prostate, bulbourethral glands).

    • Relation of male reproductive to urinary: Urinary system also includes the urethra, which is utilized in the expulsion of both urine and sperm.

    • Testosterone function: regulates male secondary sexual characteristics.

    • Ovarian Cycle: Predictable changes in oocytes and follicles, leading to ovulation.

    • Oogenesis: Formation of female gametes.

    • Folliculogenesis: Growth and development of ovarian follicles.

    • Hormonal Control of Ovarian Cycle: Hypothalamus, pituitary, and ovarian hormones regulate the cycle.

    • Menstrual Cycle: The cycle of uterine lining buildup and shedding if no pregnancy occurs.

    • Disorders of Female Reproductive System: Including HPV and cervical cancer.

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    Description

    This quiz explores the intricate structure and functions of the skin, detailing its layers such as the epidermis, dermis, and hypodermis. Additionally, it covers the role of melanin in pigmentation and the functions of various skin glands. Test your knowledge on how these elements contribute to skin health and protection.

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