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Questions and Answers
What is the stage during which infants behave as if they and their mother were an all-powerful, interdependent unit?
Normal symbiosis
According to the content, what is the term used to describe individuals who maintain distance and escape from life's problems by running away?
Who developed the technique called the Strange Situation for measuring attachment styles?
Erik Erikson extended Freud's infantile developmental stages into adolescence, adulthood, and old age.
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According to Jung, ______ is the side of our personality that we show to others.
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According to Melanie Klein's Object-Relations Theory, the term 'object' primarily refers to the infant's relationship with the father.
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Erich Fromm's theory suggests that humanity's separation from the natural world has produced feelings of loneliness and __________.
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What is the term used by Melanie Klein to describe the first 3-4 months of an infant's life, characterized by paranoid feelings and splitting of objects?
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Match the following archetypes with their descriptions:
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What factors influenced Freud's understanding of human personality?
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What technique did Josef Breur teach Freud about, which involved removing hysterical symptoms by 'talking them out'?
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Freud's Ego operates based on the reality principle.
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Freud suggested that nearly all dreams are wish-_______s.
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Match the following Freudian defense mechanisms with their descriptions:
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Masochism results from ____________.
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Necrophilia refers to any attraction to death.
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Hypochondriasis is an obsessive attention to one's _______.
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Match the following needs with their descriptions:
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What does the syndrome of growth entail in Maslow's theory?
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On how many personality factors is the NEO-Personality Inventory of Costa and McCrae based?
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What is Factor Analysis used for?
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Orthogonal rotation allows scores on the x axis to have any value as scores on the y axis remain completely unrelated.
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____ refers to an angle of less than or more than 90 ° and is advocated by Cattell.
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Match the following personality traits with their descriptions:
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What are Eysenck's 3 personality dimensions?
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What is the primary cause of differences between extraverts and introverts according to Eysenck?
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Eysenck proposed that emotional reactivity in neuroticism is due to having a highly reactive limbic system.
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______ are evolved strategies that solve important survival and/or reproductive problems.
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Match the following personality traits with their descriptions:
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For client-centered psychotherapy to be effective, a vulnerable or anxious client must have contact of some duration with a __________ counselor.
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What is the essence of existentialism?
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Who is considered the founder of modern existentialism?
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Existentialists believe that people are merely cogs in a machine. (True/False)
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Match the following concepts with their meanings:
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What is heritability?
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Which of the following are considered heritable sources of individual differences? Select all that apply.
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Maladaptive traits actively benefit one's survival.
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__ proposed the Law of Effect.
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Match the following types of conditioning with their descriptions:
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Study Notes
Sigmund Freud: Psychoanalysis
- Freud's understanding of human personality based on experiences with patients, self-analysis, and readings in various sciences and humanities
- Used case study approach, not quantifying data
- Oldest child, close to mother; learned hypnotic technique from Jean Martin Charcot and catharsis from Josef Breuer
Levels of Mental Life
- Conscious: relatively minor role, mental elements in awareness at any given point in time
- Perceptual conscious: outer world acts as a medium for perceiving external stimuli
- Preconscious: contains elements that are not conscious but can become conscious with ease
- Unconscious: contains drives, urges, or instincts beyond awareness, motivating most words, feelings, and actions
Provinces of the Mind
- Id (das es): serves as the pleasure principle, completely unconscious
- Primary process: blindly seeks to satisfy the id, depends on the development of a secondary process
- Ego (das Ich): governed by reality principle, tries to substitute for the pleasure principle of the id (decision-making branch)
- Superego (Uber Ich): guided by moralistic and idealistic principles
- Conscience: results from experience with punishments, tells us what not to do
- Ego ideal: rewards proper behavior, tells us what to do
Dynamics of Personality
- Drives: stimulus within the individual, operates as a constant motivational force
- Impetus: amount of force it exerts
- Source: region of the body in tension
- Aim: seeks pleasure by removing tension
- Object: person or thing where the aim is satisfied
- Sex (libido)
- Erogenous zones: genitals, mouth, and anus capable of producing sexual pleasure
- Sadism and masochism: reception of sexual pleasure from inflicting or experiencing pain
- Aggression: destructive instinct aims to return to an inorganic state
- Anxiety: unpleasant state accompanied by physical sensation
- Neurotic anxiety: apprehension about unknown danger, stems from ego's relation with the id
- Moral anxiety: similar to guilt, results from ego's relation with the superego
- Realistic anxiety: similar to fear, produced by ego's relation with the real world
Defense Mechanisms
- Repression: represses undesirable impulses, forces threatening feelings into the unconscious
- Reaction formation: repression of one impulse and pretentious expression of its opposite
- Displacement: redirecting unacceptable urges and feelings onto people and objects
- Fixation: remaining at a comfortable psychological stage
- Regression: reverting to earlier, more infantile modes of behavior
- Projection: seeing unacceptable feelings or behaviors in others
- Introjection: incorporating positive qualities of another person
- Sublimation: repressing genital aim of Eros by substituting a cultural or social aim
Stages of Development
- Infantile stage: most crucial for personality formation, ages 4-5
- Latency period: little or no sexual growth, ages 5-7
- Genital stage: reawakening of genital aim of Eros, continues into maturity
Alfred Adler: Individual Psychology
- Presents an optimistic view of people, resting on the notion of social interest
- Striving for success and superiority: the one dynamic force behind people's behavior
- Final goal: success or superiority, unifies personality and makes behavior meaningful
- Striving force as compensation: overcoming inferiority feelings through natural tendency to move toward completion
- Striving for personal superiority: goals are personal, motivated by exaggerated feelings of personal inferiority
- Striving for success: psychologically healthy people strive for success of all humankind without losing personal identity
Style of Life
- Self-consistent personality structure develops into a person's style of life
- Includes flavor of a person's life, goal, self-concept, feelings of others, and attitude toward the world
- Creative power: places people in control of their own lives, responsible for final goal and method of striving for that goal
Abnormal Development
- Underdeveloped social interest: most important factor in abnormal development
- Exaggerated physical deficiencies: may contribute to abnormal development by generating subjective and exaggerated feelings of inferiority
- Pampered and neglected style of life: develop low levels of social interest, drive to establish permanent parasitic relationship with mother or mother substitute
Safeguarding Tendencies
- Means of protecting inflated self-esteem against public disgrace and maintaining current style of life
- Excuses: frequently takes the form of "Yes, but" or "If only"
- Aggression: behaving aggressively toward self or others
- Withdrawal: escaping life's problems by running away or maintaining distance
Carl Jung: Analytical Psychology
- Assumption that occult phenomena influence people's lives
- Each person motivated by repressed experiences and the collective unconscious
Levels of the Psyche
- Conscious: images sensed by the ego
- Personal unconscious: repressed, forgotten, or subliminally perceived experiences of one particular individual
- Collective unconscious: beyond personal experiences, originates from repeated experiences of ancestors
- Archetypes: contents of the collective unconscious, originate through repeated experiences of ancestors
Dynamics of Personality
- Causality: present events originate from previous experiences
- Teleology: present events motivated by goals and aspirations for the future
- Progression: adaptation to the outside world involves the forward flow of psychic energy
- Regression: relies on the backward flow of psychic energy
Psychological Types
- Attitudes: predisposition to act or react in a characteristic direction
- Introversion: turning inward of psychic energy, oriented toward the subjective
- Extraversion: outward psychic energy, oriented toward the objective
- Thinking: logical intellectual activity
- Feeling: evaluating an idea or event
- Sensation: receiving physical stimuli and transmitting to perceptual consciousness
- Intuition: perception beyond the workings of consciousness
Development of Personality
- Emphasis on the second half of life
- Middle and old age as times for psychological rebirth, self-realization, and preparation for death
- Self-realization/individuation: process of becoming an individual or whole person
Methods of Investigation
- Word association test: to uncover complexes embedded in the personal unconscious
- Dream analysis: dreams may have both a cause and a purpose, useful in explaining past events and making decisions about the future### Object Relations Theory
- The term "object" refers to any person or part of a person that infants introject, or take into their psychic structure and then later project onto other people.
- Infants have an active, unconscious phantasy life, with images of the "good" breast and the "bad" breast.
- Drives have an object, such as hunger (good breast) and sex (sexual organ).
- Infants organize their experience into positions, such as:
- Paranoid-Schizoid Position (0-3/4 months): a way of organizing experiences that includes both paranoid feelings of being persecuted and a splitting of internal and external objects into the good and the bad.
- Depressive Position (4-6 months): feelings of anxiety over losing a loved object coupled with a sense of guilt for wanting to destroy that object.
Psychic Defense Mechanisms
- Introjection: fantasizing taking into their body those perceptions and experiences that they have had with the external object (e.g. mother's breast).
- Projection: the fantasy that one's own feelings and impulses actually reside in another person and not within one's own body.
- Splitting: managing the good and bad aspects of themselves and of external objects in order to keep those incompatible impulses apart.
Internalizations
- Ego: internalizations are supported by the early ego's ability to feel anxiety, to use defense mechanisms, and to form object relations in both phantasy and reality.
- Superego: preceded the Oedipus complex, and is seen as harsh and cruel.
Later Views of Object Relations
- Margaret Mahler's Views:
- Normal autism (0-3/4 weeks): a period of absolute primary narcissism in which an infant is unaware of any other person.
- Normal symbiosis (4-5 weeks): when infants behave as if they and their mother were an all-powerful, interdependent unit.
- Separation-individuation (4 months to 3 years): a time when children are becoming psychologically separated from their mothers and achieving individuation, or a sense of personal identity.
- Heinz Kohut's View: the parents' behaviors and attitudes eventually help children form a sense of self that gives unity and consistency to their experiences.
- John Bowlby's attachment theory: discusses the three stages of separation anxiety.
Karen Horney: Psychoanalytic Theory
- Criticisms of Freudian theory:
- Its rigidity toward new ideas.
- Its skewed view of feminine psychology.
- Its overemphasis on biology and the pleasure principle.
- The importance of childhood experiences:
- Lack of genuine love leads to neurotic needs.
- Basic hostility and basic anxiety.
- Neurotic needs:
- For affection and approval.
- For a powerful partner.
- To restrict one's life within narrow borders.
- For power, prestige, or possession.
Erik Erikson: Post-Freudian Theory
- Extended Freud's infantile developmental stages into adolescence, adulthood, and old age.
- The ego is the center of personality and is responsible for a unified sense of self.
- Society's influence: society shapes the ego.
- Pseudospecies: a fictional notion that they are superior to other cultures.
- Epigenetic Principle: a term borrowed from embryology that develops or should develop according to a predetermined rather and in a fixed sequence.
- Stages of psychosocial development:
- Infancy: Trust vs. Mistrust.
- Early Childhood: Autonomy vs. Shame & Doubt.
- Play Age: Initiative vs. Guilt.
- School Age: Industry vs. Inferiority.
- Adolescence: Identity vs. Identity Confusion.
- Young Adulthood: Intimacy vs. Isolation.
- Adulthood: Generativity vs. Stagnation.
- Old Age: Integrity vs. Despair.
Erich Fromm: Humanistic Psychoanalysis
- Assumes that humanity's separation from the natural world has produced feelings of loneliness and isolation, a condition called basic anxiety.
- Human needs/existential needs:
- Relatedness: the drive for union with another person.
- Transcendence: the urge to rise above a passive and accidental existence and into the realm of purposefulness and freedom.
- Fixation: a nonproductive strategy that moves beyond the protective security provided by one's mother.
- Sense of identity: the capacity to be aware of ourselves as a separate entity.
- Frame of orientation: a road map which we find our way through the world.
Abraham Maslow: Holistic-Dynamic Theory
- Assumes that the whole person is constantly being motivated by one need or another and that people have the potential to grow toward psychological health.
- Hierarchy of needs:
- Physiological needs (food, water, oxygen, etc.).
- Safety needs (physical security, stability, dependency, etc.).
- Love and belongingness needs (friendship, the wish for a mate and children, etc.).
- Esteem needs (self-respect, confidence, competence, etc.).
- Self-actualization needs (self-fulfillment, the realization of all one's potential, etc.).### Aesthetic Needs
- Aesthetic needs are not universal but are present in every culture
- Desire for beauty and aesthetically pleasing experiences
Cognitive Needs
- Desire to know, solve mysteries, understand, and be curious
Neurotic Needs
- Desire to dominate, inflict pain, or submit to another's will, leading to stagnation and pathology
###Expressive and Coping Behavior
- Expressive behavior:
- Often serves no other purpose than being an end in itself
- Frequently unconscious and natural, with little effort required
- Coping behavior:
- Conscious and learned
- Determined by the external environment
Deprivation of Needs
- Leads to pathology of some sort
- Metapathology: absence of values, lack of fulfillment, and loss of meaning in life
Instinctoid Nature of Needs
- Innately determined needs that can be modified by learning
Higher and Lower Needs
- Higher-level needs (love, esteem, self-actualization):
- Later on the evolutionary scale
- Produce more genuine happiness and peak experiences
- Lower-level needs:
- Physiological, safety, love and belonging, esteem
Self-Actualization
- Ultimate level of psychological health
- Criteria for self-actualization:
- Free from psychopathology
- Satisfaction of each of the four lower-level needs
- Full realization of one's potential for growth
- Acceptance of B-values (being values)
Values of Self-Actualizers
- B-values:
- Truth, goodness, beauty, wholeness, aliveness, uniqueness, perfection, completion, justice, order, simplicity, richness
- Indicators of psychological health, opposed to deficiency needs
Characteristics of Self-Actualizing People
- More efficient perception of reality
- Acceptance of self, others, and nature
- Spontaneity, simplicity, and naturalness
- Problem-centering
- Need for privacy
- Autonomy
- Continued freshness of appreciation
- Peak experiences
- Social interest
- Profound interpersonal relations
- Democratic character structure
- Discrimination between means and ends
- Philosophical sense of humor
- Creativeness
- Resistance to enculturation
Love, Sex, and Self-Actualization
- Self-actualizing people are capable of both giving and receiving love
- Capable of B-love (being love)
Maslow's Psychology and Philosophy of Science
- Desacralization: lack of joy, emotion, wonder, and awe in science
- Resacralization: instilling human values, emotion, and ritual in psychology
- Taoistic attitude: non-interfering, passive, and receptive approach to psychology
Measuring Self-Actualization
- The Personal Orientation Inventory (POI) is a widely used measure of self-actualization
The Jonah Complex
- Fear of being or doing one's best, a condition present to some extent in everyone
Carl Rogers: Person-Centered Theory
Basic Assumptions
- Formative tendency: all matter evolves from simpler to more complex forms
- Actualizing tendency: all living things tend to move toward completion or fulfillment of potentials
- Maintenance: tendency to resist change and seek the status quo
- Enhancement: willingness to learn and grow
The Self and Self-Actualization
- Sense of self established during infancy allows for self-actualization
- Self-concept: aspects of one's identity perceived in awareness
- Ideal self: one's view of self as one wishes to be
- Incongruence: gap between self-concept and ideal self, leading to psychopathology
Awareness
- People are aware of both their self-concept and ideal self
- Three levels of awareness:
- Events experienced below the threshold of awareness
- Events accurately symbolized and freely admitted to the self-structure
- Events perceived in a distorted form
Becoming a Person
- Positive regard: developing a need to be loved, liked, or accepted by another person
- Positive self-regard: experiencing self-prizing or self-valuing
Barriers to Psychological Health
- Conditions of worth: feeling loved and accepted only when meeting others' conditions
- External evaluations: perception of others' views of oneself, hindering psychological health
- Incongruence: discrepancy between organismic experience and self-experience
- Vulnerability: lack of awareness of the discrepancy between organismic self and significant experience
- Anxiety: awareness of the incongruence, leading to threat
- Defensiveness: protection of self-concept against anxiety and threat through denial or distortion
Psychotherapy
- Six necessary conditions for effective client-centered psychotherapy:
- Vulnerable or anxious client
- Contact of some duration with a congruent counselor
- Unconditional positive regard
- Empathic listening
- Congruence, unconditional positive regard, and empathy
Rollo May: Existential Psychology
Background of Existentialism
- Søren Kierkegaard: founder of modern existentialism
- Emphasis on balance between freedom and responsibility
What is Existentialism?
- Existence takes precedence over essence
- Existentialists oppose the split between subject and object
- People search for meaning in their lives
- Each person is responsible for who they are and what they become
- Existentialists are anti-theoretical
Basic Concepts
- Being-in-the-world (Dasein): oneness of subject and object, of person and world
- Umwelt: environment around us
- Mitwelt: our world with other people
- Eigenwelt: our relationship with our self
- Nonbeing: awareness of the possibility of nonbeing or nothingness
Anxiety
- Normal anxiety: proportionate to the threat, without repression
- Neurotic anxiety: disproportionate to the threat, leading to repression and defensive behaviors
Guilt
- Arises when people deny their potentialities, fail to accurately perceive others' needs, or remain blind to their dependence on the natural world
- Both anxiety and guilt are ontological, referring to the nature of being
Intentionality
- Structure that gives meaning to experience and allows people to make decisions about the future
Care, Love, and Will
- Care: active process that suggests things matter
- Love: care, delight, and affirmation of another person's value
- Will: capacity to organize oneself to move in a certain direction or toward a certain goal
Union of Love and Will
- Forms of love:
- Sex: biological function
- Eros: psychological desire for procreation or creation
- Philia: intimate nonsexual friendship
- Agape: altruistic or spiritual love
Freedom and Destiny
- Psychologically healthy individuals are comfortable with freedom and assume responsibility for their choices
- Destiny: design of the universe speaking through the design of each individual
Gordon Allport: Psychology of the Individual
Emphasis on the Uniqueness of the Individual
- Nomothetic methods: gather data on groups
- Morphogenic methods: gather data on single individuals
- Idiographic: peculiar to a single case, does not suggest structure or pattern
Allport's Approach to Personality Theory
- What is personality?
- What is the role of conscious motivation in personality theory?
- What are the characteristics of the psychologically healthy person?
What is Personality?
- Dynamic organization within the individual of those psychophysical systems that determine behavior and thought
- Dynamic organization: integration of various aspects of personality
- Psychophysical: emphasizes both psychological and physical aspects of personality
- Determine: individual behind the facade
What is the Role of Conscious Motivation?
- Beginning with the story of the young boy on the tram car, Allport saw conscious motive in the selection of a career in psychology
Characteristics of a Healthy Person
- Proactive behavior: conscious acting on the environment, autonomous, and flexible
- Six criteria for the mature personality:
- Extension of the sense of self
- Warm relating of self to others
- Emotional security or self-acceptance
- Realistic perception of the environment
- Insight and humor
- Unifying philosophy of life
Structure of Personality
- Personal dispositions: peculiar to the individual
- Common traits: general characteristics held in common by many people
- Cardinal dispositions: outstanding characteristic or ruling passion
- Central dispositions: 5-10 most outstanding characteristics
- Secondary dispositions: not central, yet occur with some regularity
Proprium
- Behaviors and characteristics regarded as warm, central, and important in one's life
- Propriate strivings: seek to maintain tension and disequilibrium
- Peripheral motives: reduce a need
- Functional autonomy: some human motives are independent from the original motive responsible for the behavior
McCrae and Costa: Five Factor Trait Theory
Comparison with Cattell
- Both used inductive methods to gather data
- Cattell used multifaceted approach, including media of observation (L, Q, and T data)
- McCrae and Costa limited their procedures to questionnaire responses (self-reports)
- Cattell distinguished source traits from trait indicators, or surface traits
- Cattell classified traits into temperament, motivation, and ability
- McCrae and Costa's five bipolar factors are limited to responses on questionnaires
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Learn about Sigmund Freud's theory of human personality based on his experiences and case studies. Understand his approach to psychoanalysis and its significance in psychology.
