Sieve Analysis and Aggregates

Chapter 2: Stones and Aggregates

• Chapter will discuss stones as building materials and aggregates as an element of concrete.

Historical Significance of Stone

• Stone has been a key construction material, due to its durability, availability, and adaptability.
• Stone's wide availability makes it universally accessible, unlike resources concentrated geopolitically.
• The art of building stone walls for protection dates back to prehistoric times.
• The earliest remaining stone buildings were constructed in Egypt and Mesopotamia approximately 5000 years ago.
• The stone industry's status declined with the rise of concrete, particularly after World War I.
• Prehistoric temples were made from sandstone in Egypt and limestone in Greece and India, e.g. Karnak Temple in Egypt.
• Ancient cultures used post and lintel construction with stone arches appearing over 5,000 years ago in northern Mesopotamia (Iraq).
• The Romans used limestone in arch construction for buildings and bridges over 2,000 years ago.

Historical Civilizations and Stone Construction:

• Ancient Egypt used stones for the Pyramids.
• Greece used stones for the Parthenon.
• Roman architecture used stone for aqueducts.
• Medieval Europe used stone for Gothic cathedrals.
• Asia used stone for the Great Wall of China and Angkor Wat.
• Stone is used in blocks for walls, slabs, and roofing slates in building construction.
• In other applications, stones are used for aggregate in concrete, terrazzo, mortars, plasters, and rendering.
• Granules are used for surfacing bituminous felts.
• Powders are used for extending paint and rock wool for insulation.

Rock Types

• There are three main rock groups: igneous, sedimentary, and metamorphic.
• Rock types are based on their origin and formation processes.
• Igneous rocks from the cooling of magma.
• Sedimentary rocks are due to weathering.
• Metamorphic form under pressure and chemical changes.
• Rock cycles are the processes that transform one rock type into another over time.

Types of Stones

• Igneous stones include granite, basalt, and mica, originate from magma cooling.
• Sedimentary stones, like sandstone and limestone, are formed by weathering.
• Metamorphic stones, such as slates, marble, and quartzites, are formed under pressure as well as chemical alteration.

Igneous Stones

• Igneous stones are natural rocks formed from cooling and solidifying magma or lava.
• Intrusive igneous stones cool slowly and extrusive stones cool faster with a rough structure.
• The structure depends on the cooling rate, influencing their crystalline properties.
• Intrusive stones has a medium crystalline form, polish well, and is often used for ornamental purposes and concrete (e.g., granite).
• Cooling of molten magma forms granite, basalt, and mica, and generally does not contain shell.

Granite

• Granite is known for its durability, making it a commonly used building stone.
• Granite is deep-seated igneous rock with crystalline structure and coarse to fine grain.
• Granite can withstand extreme weathering and abrasive conditions.
• Cut into slabs and polished, granite is suitable for stone-facing and flooring slabs.
• Granite has low fire resistance, but resists acidic liquids like vinegar and lime juice, so it is suited for countertops.

Advantages of Granite

• Exhibits durability and toughness.
• Demonstrates erosion resistance.
• Can be utilized effectively as a floor covering.
• Survives harsh weather conditions due to hardness.
• Presents a beautiful stone with a sophisticated appearance.
• It holds high impact-resistance, making it difficult to break.

Disadvantages of Granite

• Granite prices are high, including installation costs.
• Granite installation is a lengthy process involving mortaring and mortar adhesion.
• Under X-ray, gamma radiation, and magnetic fields, radioactive wave radiation can increase.

Basalt

• Basalt is sometimes called white stones, green stones, or blue basalt and is an ignorant rock.
• This hardness and other characteristics makes it hard to effectively use for any purpose.
• Basalt has a strong compressive strength between 150 and 190 MPA.
• The structure of the stone is medium to thin, with many color options.
• Basalt stones are black to dark grey, and popular in house design.

Advantages of Basalt

• Lightweight and rough tough.
• Good insulation and sound absorption.
• Heat preservation so it is used under trains.
• Environmentally friendly.

Disadvantages of Basalt:

• Not easily workable.
• Basalt is used for railway ballast aggregate for concrete, road metals, pavement, dams, and river walls.

Sedimentary Stones

• Sedimentary stones made of tiny particles like sand, shells, dinosaur bones compressed and cemented over millions of years.
• Formed from particles of older rocks broken down by water, wind, or ice, or from organic accumulation.
• Sediments carried by winds and water lay horizontally producing natural grain.
• Changes in layer composition cause production of differing produced layers including soft beds from time to time.

Sedimentary Rock

• Sedimentary rock types are Sandstone, Travertine, and Limestone.

Sandstone

• Sandstone consists of fine or coarse quartz particles.
• Good sandstone brands are strong.
• The top sandstones are durable although they get dirty easier.
• York stones from the best sandstones, which are hard/durable fine-grained, and used for paving = Sang Stones.
• Sandstone, with warm colours and intricate patterns, is useful for building.
• It is workable for detailed carvings/sculptures.
• Natural strength ensures long-lasting durability.

Sandstone Examples:

• The Pyramids of Giza made of sandstone.
• Sydney Opera House has iconic shells of sandstone panels.
• The Houses of Parliament in London have Gothic Revival and sandstone carvings.

Limestone

• Limestone is a sedimentary rock formed over millions of years from compressed remains of marine organisms.
• Limestone's journey begins with shells and skeletons of creatures accumulating on the seabed.
• Layers are buried and the pressure and heat transform them into solid rock.
• Formed mainly from lake or sea deposits
• Typically pure limestone is white or off-white, but other ingredients often color it cream, yellow, brown, grey and almost black.
• Used in 25mm thickness on precast concrete wall slabs.

Limestone Applications:

• Cladding and Facades
• Flooring and Interior Design
• Historical Monuments and Sculptures:
• Infrastructure and Construction

Metamorphic Stones

• Metamorphic stones are from transformation of existing rock types.
• Metamorphism means "change of form" and comes from pressure under heat including chemical reaction.
• Transformation happens under high pressure, high temperature within Earth's crust; resulting in distinct physical/chemical properties.
• It consists of older stones subjected to heat and pressure, and their structural change.
• Types include Slate, Quartzite, and Marble - the most expensive.

Marble

• Marble comes from limestone stone & dolomite.
• Marble is formed under conditions of high pressure and temperature, causing recrystallization of original carbonate mineral grains.
• This creates marble's characteristic veining and variety of colors.
• Used for flooring, wall cladding, countertops, and sculptures because of beauty and elegance.
• Susceptibility to acid rain make it less ideal for exterior use.

Types of Marble

• Fine marbles are crystalline and ideal for carved details, and is smooth.
• It is hard and resistant to abrasion.
• Marble takes an excellent self-polish, enhancing its appearance.
• Unlike granite, marble is attacked by acids and loses its polish in polluted environments.
• Marble is used as cladding material and for flooring/interior decoration.

Slate

• Slate originates from low-grade metamorphism of volcanic shale, ash or clay and is a Metamorphic rock.
• Known for its durability, and thin sheets for roofing, wall cladding, flooring and has low water absorption, and can have outdoor use.
• Other metamorphic stones include quartzite (from quartz sandstone) and schist (from mudstone/shale).
• These are used for decoration structural, durability, and aesthetic appeal.

Quartzite

• Quartzite comprises approximately 96% silica and very durable
• Quartzite is imported from Norway, Sweden, and South Africa.
• Colors are typically grey, green, and gold.
• Used for walls, flooring, and paving.

Building Stone Production:

• Stone is quarried, transported to producer, and cut into panels.
• Production involves several steps: quarrying, processing, and delivery.

Quarrying

• It involves extracting stone from a quarry, a large rock deposit.
• Depends on stone and deposit type, involving diamond drilling, wire, and saws.

Transportation

• Rough stone blocks are transported from quarry to processing facilities, with specialized equipment for loading and unloading.

Processing

• Large blocks are cut into slabs/tiles using saws or block cutters, and water is used to control dust and prolong the life of cutting tools.
• Stones go through sawcutting, polishing, edge cutting, sink cutout, hand polishing,quality control packing, and loading.
• Stones is cut into the desired shape and size, then surface treatments that include: polishing honing, flaming, bush hammering, or sandblasting.
• Choice of finish depends on desired look and the stone's use, example a countertop has polished finishes and bushammered is good for outdoors.
• In edge shaping, advanced CNC is often used for this process.
• Coating stops water absorption.
• Quality control throughout production checks for cracks/thickness.
• Packaging protects against damage during transport by way of wooden crates/pallets.

Installation

• Requires skilled craftsmanship, particularly for complex designs/large, heavy pieces.
• Stone elements can be field stones, ordinary quarry stones, and cut stone.
• Stone use in construction is dividing and cutting blocks with diagrams available showing these technqiues.

Stones as Structural Elements

• Stone used for load-bearing historical structures, including ancient fortresses, temples, and castles.
• Granite and limestone types of stone are suitable for supporting the weight of a building.

Load Bearing Walls:

• Pre Panelized load bearing wall
• Engineering brick load bearing wall
• Reinforced Concrete load bearing wall Precast concrete load bearing wall Masonry load bearing wall Stone load bearing wall Retaining load bearing wall
• Stone arches are structural elements used in architecture, which distributes load to the building.

Stones as Structural Elements, Uses:

• stone is used in columns and pillars, foundations, retaining walls, domes, bridges, pavements, and structural art.

Introduction to Aggregates

• According to Asher Shadmon of the HABITAT stone is the building material of the future and that it is durable.
• Aggregates are building material that can absorb water.
• Pores allow aggregate to absorb water and can cause the material to become weaker.
• Aggregate is a building and construction material used to form concrete or mortar.
• They are mixed with cement, bitumen, lime, or gypsum, or other adhesive, they give the concrete's volume, stability, and resistance.
• Aggregates are sand, crushed/broken stone, and gravel.

Aggregates Materials

• Mortar and concrete uses sand and gravel, etc.
• Aggregates are inert materials mixed in proportions with a binding material to create concrete.
• The act as fillers or volume increasers which are responsible for the strength, hardness, and durability of the concrete.
• Concrete is a mix of two components (paste and aggregate).

Concrete Mix:

• Paste, which contains water, cement,and air. Cement acts as the aggregate.

Introduction to Aggregates

• The mixture of aggregate and concrete takes up 60-80% of the volume.

Two Types of Aggregates:

• Sand and gravel are primaries.
• Sand is fine and gravel is coarse. Aggregates must be clean (free of silt/organic matter). Aggregates is generally cheaper than cement and impact volume stability and durability.

Uses of Aggregates:

• Provide bulk
• Increase density
• Use in two(+) sizes.

Aggregates on Concrete Performance:

• Strength of aggregates.
• Durability of aggregates. Structural Performance of aggregates.
• Cost of aggrefates.

Aggregate Functions

• Supply particles suitable for load resistance and increase durability than cement paste alone.
• Provide filler for cementing material.
• Decrease volume changes by moisture during drying, process, and setting.
• Mineral character affects the concrete’s elasticity, strength, and durability.
• Grading affects cost, density, strength and workability.
• Properties of aggregate affect the properties of concrete. Mechanical properties are strength, hardness, toughness,durability porosity, and water absorption.

Aggregate Strength

• In practice, most normal aggregates greatly exceed concrete.
• Average crushing strength is 200N/mm².
• Compressive strength of most used aggregates is between 45 ro 550N/mm².
• The strength of concrete is generally between 15 and 50N/mm².

The Crushing Test:

• Aggregate crushing test values show an aggregate's strength.
• Crushing value the relative resistance measure under compressive loads.
• Higher crushing strength means a lower crushing value or vice versa.
• If the aggregate crushing is <10, the aggregate is very strong, but if >35 the aggregate is weak.

Equipment for Crushing Test:

• Compressive machine.
• Steel cylinder 15 cm diameter with plunger and base plate.
• Weighing machine.
• Sieve: Sizes of 12.5 mm, 10 mm, and 2.36 mm.

Crushing Test Steps:

• First you must put the aggregates in the oven to dry.
• Collect the specimen with the Sieve through 12.2mn but keep the specimen with 10mm.
• Using a rod the fill the 3 specimen layers.
• Apply a uniform load to material then weigh it, and calculate.

Aggregate Formulas:

• Aggregate crushing is = W2 / W * 100
• W is the weight of the sample
• W2 is the weight through the sieve.
• Less is crush strength for the crushing strength.

Aggregate Hardness

• Hardness is resistance to load or pressure.
• Hardness is relative to the rock type.
• The test that you can use is abrasion.
• The Los Angeles abrasion test, finds the wear relative to the steel balls.

Aggregate Toughness

• Toughness is resistance to failure by impact.
• The aggregate impact test is used to determine this.

Aggregate Durability

• Durability is the resistance to damage external to the sample.
• It can be used in a test for soundness.

Aggregate Porosity

• Aggregates have different sized pores.
• Aggregates that are dry absorb water, those wet release water.
• The speed is relative to size.
• The size is 75% relative to the amount volume.

Grading of Aggregates Classifications:

• Properties-grain size
• Weight
• Petrological
• Surface texture and article, ASTM
• The American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM) defines several standards that pertain to the classification and specification of aggregates for use in construction.

Classification Based on Petro Characteristics:

• Natural aggregates
• Manufactured aggregates are identical
• Recycling aggregates Classifies aggregate according to grain size, fine and coarse. Also classifies aggregate according to weight, bulky/flaky, Surface Texture, according to weight, according to Bulky. Smooth and rough. According to grain size. Finer aggregates.

Natural Aggregates Characteristics

• Were originally part of the larger parent mass.
• The properties depend on rocks.
• Absent: textures, shapes and sizes.
• The cheapest material.

According to Grain Size:

• Fine aggregates.
• Most common system of classifying the product, Sand is fine and Gravel is Coarse>

Recycled Concrete Aggregate:

• Recycled buildings as aggregate can be effective and material. How to recycle, crush, remove, steel and use The is usually for sand and gravel and crushed is used to separate.

Sieve Analysis Definition

• Involves the sample a set of size that gets progresssively smaller.
• Test for grading aggregates is carried out using the sieve analysis method.
• Includes a set of screens on the soil set where the soil samples have openings.
• Fine Aggregates, particles pass to 4.7mm. They include Ash and Stone.
• Small size is to use sieve and sieve is to use stone crushed. Fine aggregate test - a part size and a test
• Range from four and too much better.

According to Grain Size of Aggregates

• Coarse Aggregates> is 4.75. Is includes gravel and crushed stone.

Material Classification in Sieve Analysis

• Clay/silt
• Sand
• Gravel
• Cobbles
• Boulders
• Use sieve to decrease soil particle size. Sieve analysis is the labor procedure where with the help of aggregate.

Aggregates and Concrete

• A laboratory procedure that consists of passing soil through a set of sieves with progressively smaller openings.
• Testing is performed by shaking the soil sample through a set of sieves of smaller openings.
• Size is 15mm.
• It is measured by shaking and seeing how big the grain is.
• They each have progress that goes together as there are course particles that mix for a set.

More about Sieve

• 60-70 percent is very concrete.
• If not aggregate mix - natural material will go with crushed stone, gravel that is stone.
• Fine Aggregate. That is sand or crushed stone. It is less. 45.
• Coarse . It is gravel or stone as well more than is.
• Weight increases when sand and insulation are decreased.

According to Weight of Normal-Weight Concrete

• Ranges typically weight between 2200 and 2400 Kilograms.

Heavy Concrete Weight:

• Is 4000 kilograms by Meters Cubed>

Requirements of a strong Aggregate

• Good aggregate has little lump and is organic, and is clean.
• A good aggregate is should be strong and durable without reacting to mixing well and is. It has 5% surface well with a limiting porosity to it.
• It all is also cubical and. Is a Dry mixture.

Classification Based on Particle Texture-Shape:

• Most important is external characteristics on surface is particle.
• This classifies it as Bulky, Flaky, or Needle Shape with. Can can can have some some other types subangular or even round it.
• Types-smooth. Most important is external characteristics on surface is the particle texture which is the strength.

Smooth Aggragate:

• Bulk and rounded.

Acicular or Needle-Shaped Aggregates

• Aggregates are not often in the shape of needles.

Influence of Angularity:

• It has significant effects on the properties. Rounded, texture influence materials. The Shape/ texture are angular. They can be durable if. They have strength if they are wet, less water and angularity, and decrease for a mix. It’s also the shape/texture that the aggregate is mixed for with influence. Workability depends on rounded aggregates but may increase the durability of a mix.
• It makes a denzer substance will will be less resistant to wear and.

Gradation Terms

• The particle size distribution in an aggregate is gradation.
• Concrete is good and has a has reasonable density of aggregate.
• Strength is compact in concrete. Should be reasonable in work.

Grading Effect on Concrete

• An actual has more cement paste needs and its it’s more than just volume.
• Cement paste is less needs to be workability and so what’s all is needed influenced.
• Coarse and fine aggregates should be well graded. The Grading is the size of aggregates that are distributed.

This quiz assesses understanding of sieve analysis, fine aggregates, and their role in concrete. It covers particle size, material types, and the influence of aggregates on concrete properties. Questions explore sieve numbers, aggregate classification, and selection criteria for high-performance concrete.